Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T06:55:16.511Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The role of specific early trauma in adult depression: A meta-analysis of published literature. Childhood trauma and adult depression

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2015

L. Mandelli ,
C. Petrelli  and
A. Serretti
L. Mandelli*
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, V.le C. Pepoli 5, 40123Bologna, Italy
C. Petrelli
Affiliation:
Department of Biomedical Sciences, Metabolism and Neuroscience, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
A. Serretti
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, V.le C. Pepoli 5, 40123Bologna, Italy
*
*Corresponding author. Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, V.le C. Pepoli 5, 40123, Bologna, Italy. E-mail address: laura.mandelli@unibo.it (L. Mandelli).
Get access

Abstract

Background

A large literature has long focused on the role of trauma in childhood and risk for psychological disorders in adulthood. Despite several studies performed, to date, it is not clear which weight have different childhood stressors specifically on the risk for depression in adult life. In the present study, we performed a meta-analysis of the literature in order to assess the effective role of childhood traumas as risk factor in the onset of depressive disorders in adults.

Methods

Previously published papers investigating the exposure to childhood trauma and their association with depression in adult subjects were retrieved in literature through common databases. Meta-analysis was conducted by the RevMan software. The quality of studies was evaluated by an adapted version of the New-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale; bias publication was evaluated by the Egger's test. Meta-regression analysis was employed to detect potential confounders and/or moderating variables. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was post-hoc performed to control for potential confounders.

Results

Emotional abuse showed the strongest association with depression (OR = 2.78) followed by neglect (OR = 2.75) and sexual abuse (OR = 2.42). Significant associations were also found for domestic violence (OR = 2.06) and physical abuse (OR = 1.98). Nevertheless, in post-hoc analysis, emotional abuse and neglect showed the strongest associations with depression as compared to other kinds of child trauma.

Conclusions

These findings support the role of neglect and emotional abuse as significantly associated to depression. Sexual/physical abuse or violence in family may be unspecific risk factors for mental disturbance. Other kind of trauma may play a less relevant role in risk of adult depression, though they should be not underestimated.

Keywords

Child/adolescentTraumaDepressionAbuseMaltreatmentNeglectLife events/stress
Type
Review
Information
European Psychiatry , Volume 30 , Issue 6 , September 2015 , pp. 665 - 680
Copyright
Copyright © Elsevier Masson SAS 2015

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aguilera, M., Arias, B., Wichers, M., Barrantes-Vidal, N., Moya, J., Villa, H., et al.Early adversity and 5-HTT/BDNF genes: new evidence of gene-environment interactions on depressive symptoms in a general population. Psychol Med 2009;39:1425–1432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd Edition revised. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1987.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.Google Scholar
Anda, R.F., Whitfield, C.L., Felitti, V.J., Chapman, D., Edwards, V.J., Dube, S.R., et al.Adverse childhood experiences, alcoholic parents, and later risk of alcoholism and depression. Psychiatr Serv 2002;53:1001–1009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anda, R.F., Felitti, V.J., Bremner, J.D., Walker, J.D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B.D., et al.The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006;256:174–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Appel, K., Schwahn, C., Mahler, J., Schulz, A., Spitzer, C., Fenske, K., et al.Moderation of adult depression by a polymorphism in the FKBP5 gene and childhood physical abuse in the general population. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;36:1982–1991.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A.T., Ward, C.H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., Erbaugh, J.An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1961;4:561–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernet, C.Z., Stein, M.B.Relationship of childhood maltreatment to the onset and course of major depression in adulthood. Depress Anxiety 1999;9:169–174.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bifulco, A., Brown, G.W., Adler, Z.Early sexual abuse and clinical depression in adult life. Br J Psychiatry 1991;159:115–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bifulco, A., Brown, G.W., Moran, P.Predicting depression in women: the role of past and present vulnerability. Psychol Med 1998;28:39–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bifulco, A., Moran, P.M., Baines, R., Bunn, A., Stanford, K.Exploring psychological abuse in childhood: II. Association with other abuse and adult clinical depression. Bull Menninger Clin 2002;66:241–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonanno, G.A.Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?. Am Psychol 2004;59:20–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boudewyn, A.C., Liem, J.H.Childhood sexual abuse as a precursor to depression and self-destructive behavior in adulthood. J Trauma Stress 1995;8:445–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyer, D., Fine, D.Sexual abuse as a factor in adolescent pregnancy and child maltreatment. Fam Plann Perspect 1992;24: 4–11, 9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brezo, J., Bureau, A., Merette, C., Jomphe, V., Barker, E.D., Vitaro, F., et al.Differences and similarities in the serotonergic diathesis for suicide attempts and mood disorders: a 22-year longitudinal gene-environment study. Mol Psychiatry 2010;15:831–843.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brodsky, B.S., Oquendo, M., Ellis, S.P., Haas, G.L., Malone, K.M., Mann, J.J.The relationship of childhood abuse to impulsivity and suicidal behavior in adults with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1871–1877.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, J., Cohen, P., Johnson, J.G., Smailes, E.M.Childhood abuse and neglect: specificity of effects on adolescent and young adult depression and suicidality. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999;38:1490–1496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, G.W., Craig, T.K., Harris, T.O., Handley, R.V., Harvey, A.L.Development of a retrospective interview measure of parental maltreatment using the childhood experience of care and abuse (CECA) instrument – a life-course study of adult chronic depression – 1. J Affect Disord 2007;103:205–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnam, M.A., Wells, K.B., Leake, B., Landsverk, J.Development of a brief screening instrument for detecting depressive disorders. Med Care 1988;26:775–789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapman, D.P., Whitfield, C.L., Felitti, V.J., Dube, S.R., Edwards, V.J., Anda, R.F.Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood. J Affect Disord 2004;82:217–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charney, D.S.Psychobiological mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability: implications for successful adaptation to extreme stress. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:195–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheasty, M., Clare, A.W., Collins, C.Relation between sexual abuse in childhood and adult depression: case-control study. BMJ 1998;316:198–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, L.P., Murad, M.H., Paras, M.L., Colbenson, K.M., Sattler, A.L., Goranson, E.N., et al.Sexual abuse and lifetime diagnosis of psychiatric disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc 2010;85:618–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chung, E.K., Mathew, L., Elo, I.T., Coyne, J.C., Culhane, J.F.Depressive symptoms in disadvantaged women receiving prenatal care: the influence of adverse and positive childhood experiences. Ambul Pediatr 2008;8:109–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, H., Loewenthal, U., Matar, M., Kotler, M.Association of autonomic dysfunction and clozapine. Heart rate variability and risk for sudden death in patients with schizophrenia on long-term psychotropic medication. Br J Psychiatry 2001;179:167–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Comijs, H.C., Beekman, A.T., Smit, F., Bremmer, M., van Tilburg, T., Deeg, D.J.Childhood adversity, recent life events and depression in late life. J Affect Disord 2007;103:243–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cotter, P.A.Sexual abuse is not the only childhood adversity that may lead to later depression. BMJ 1998;316:1244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derogatis, L.SCL-90. Administration, scoring and procedures Manual-I for the R (revised) version and other instruments of the Psychopathology Rating Scale Series. Chicago: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; 1977.Google Scholar
Dickersin, K.The existence of publication bias and risk factors for its occurrence. JAMA 1990;263:1385–1389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dong, M., Anda, R.F., Dube, S.R., Giles, W.H., Felitti, V.J.The relationship of exposure to childhood sexual abuse to other forms of abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction during childhood. Child Abuse Negl 2003;27:625–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dong, M., Anda, R.F., Felitti, V.J., Dube, S.R., Williamson, D.F., Thompson, T.J., et al.The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse Negl 2004;28:771–784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dube, S.R., Williamson, D.F., Thompson, T., Felitti, V.J., Anda, R.F.Assessing the reliability of retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences among adult HMO members attending a primary care clinic. Child Abuse Negl 2004;28:729–737.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubowitz, H.Understanding and addressing the “neglect of neglect:” digging into the molehill. Child Abuse Negl 2007;31:603–606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubowitz, H., Pitts, S.C., Black, M.M.Measurement of three major subtypes of child neglect. Child Maltreat 2004;9:344–356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, E.C., McLaughlin, K.A., Slopen, N., Rosand, J., Smoller, J.W.Developmental timing of child maltreatment and symptoms of depression and suicidal ideation in young adulthood: results from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health. Depress Anxiety 2013;30:955–964.Google ScholarPubMed
Edwards, V.J., Holden, G.W., Felitti, V.J., Anda, R.F.Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: results from the adverse childhood experiences study. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1453–1460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egger, M., Davey Smith, G., Schneider, M., Minder, C.Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997;315:629–634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elzinga, B.M., Molendijk, M.L., Oude Voshaar, R.C., Bus, B.A., Prickaerts, J., Spinhoven, P., et al.The impact of childhood abuse and recent stress on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor and the moderating role of BDNF Val66Met. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011;214:319–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ernst, C., Angst, J., Foldenyi, M.The Zurich Study. XVII. Sexual abuse in childhood. Frequency and relevance for adult morbidity data of a longitudinal epidemiological study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993;242:293–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D.M., Horwood, L.J., Lynskey, M.T.Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: II. Psychiatric outcomes of childhood sexual abuse. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:1365–1374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D.M., Lynskey, M.T., Horwood, L.J.Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: I. Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:1355–1364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D.M., McLeod, G.F., Horwood, L.J.Childhood sexual abuse and adult developmental outcomes: findings from a 30-year longitudinal study in New Zealand. Child Abuse Negl 2013;37:664–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, H.L., Cohen-Woods, S., Hosang, G.M., Korszun, A., Owen, M., Craddock, N., et al.Interaction between specific forms of childhood maltreatment and the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT) in recurrent depressive disorder. J Affect Disord 2013;145:136–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, S., Smith, L., Fogel, D., Paradis, C., Viswanathan, R., Ackerman, R., et al.The incidence and influence of early traumatic life events in patients with panic disorder: a comparison with other psychiatric outpatients. J Anxiety Disord 2002;16:259–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garbarino, J., Garbarino, A.Emotional maltreatment of children. 2nd Ed.. Chicago: National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse; 1994.Google Scholar
Gibb, B.E., Chelminski, I., Zimmerman, M.Childhood emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, and diagnoses of depressive and anxiety disorders in adult psychiatric outpatients. Depress Anxiety 2007;24:256–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gladstone, G., Parker, G., Wilhelm, K., Mitchell, P., Austin, M.P.Characteristics of depressed patients who report childhood sexual abuse. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:431–437.Google ScholarPubMed
Glaser, D.Emotional abuse and neglect (psychological maltreatment): a conceptual framework. Child Abuse Negl 2002;26:697–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, D.Manual of the general health questionnaire. Windsor: NFER-Nelson; 1987.Google Scholar
Goldman, J., Salus, M.K., Wolcott, D., Kennedy, K.Y.A coordinated response to child abuse and neglect: the Foundation for Practice. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2003.Google Scholar
Hamilton, M.A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1960;23:56–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardt, J., Rutter, M.Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: review of the evidence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2004;45:260–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heim, C., Binder, E.B.Current research trends in early life stress and depression: review of human studies on sensitive periods, gene-environment interactions, and epigenetics. Exp Neurol 2012;233:102–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C., Nemeroff, C.B.The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: preclinical and clinical studies. Biol Psychiatry 2001;49:1023–1039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C., Shugart, M., Craighead, W.E., Nemeroff, C.B.Neurobiological and psychiatric consequences of child abuse and neglect. Dev Psychobiol 2010;52:671–690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J., Pickles, A., Burnside, E., Byatt, M., Rollinson, L., Davis, R., et al.Child sexual abuse, poor parental care and adult depression: evidence for different mechanisms. Br J Psychiatry 2001;179:104–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holahan, C.J., Moos, R.H.Life stressors, personal and social resources, and depression: a 4-year structural model. J Abnorm Psychol 1991;100:31–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hovens, J.G., Giltay, E.J., Wiersma, J.E., Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B.W., Zitman, F.G.Impact of childhood life events and trauma on the course of depressive and anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2012;126:198–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Infrasca, R.Childhood adversities and adult depression: an experimental study on childhood depressogenic markers. J Affect Disord 2003;76:103–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorm, A.F., Henderson, A.S.Memory bias in depression: implications for risk factor studies relying on self-reports of exposure. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 1992;2:312–338.Google Scholar
Kendler, K.S., Bulik, C.M., Silberg, J., Hettema, J.M., Myers, J., Prescott, C.A.Childhood sexual abuse and adult psychiatric and substance use disorders in women: an epidemiological and cotwin control analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:953–959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K.S., Kuhn, J.W., Prescott, C.A.Childhood sexual abuse, stressful life events and risk for major depression in women. Psychol Med 2004;34:1475–1482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klengel, T., Binder, E.B.Gene-environment interactions in major depressive disorder. Can J Psychiatry 2013;58:76–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koverola, C., Pound, J., Heger, A., Lytle, C.Relationship of child sexual abuse to depression. Child Abuse Negl 1993;17:393–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaNoue, M., Graeber, D., de Hernandez, B.U., Warner, T.D., Helitzer, D.L.Direct and indirect effects of childhood adversity on adult depression. Community Ment Health J 2012;48:187–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenze, S.N., Xiong, C., Sheline, Y.I.Childhood adversity predicts earlier onset of major depression but not reduced hippocampal volume. Psychiatry Res 2008;162:39–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandelli, L., Serretti, A.Gene environment interaction studies in depression and suicidal behavior: an update. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maughan, B., Rutter, M.Retrospective reporting of childhood adversity: issues in assessing long-term recall. J Pers Disord 1997;11:19–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McSherry, D.Understanding and addressing the “neglect of neglect”: why are we making a mole-hill out of a mountain?. Child Abuse Negl 2007;31:607–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mechanic, M.B., Resick, P.A., Griffin, M.G.A comparison of normal forgetting, psychopathology, and information-processing models of reported amnesia for recent sexual trauma. J Consult Clin Psychol 1998;66:948–957.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meiselman, K.Incest: a psychological study outs causes and effects with treatment recomedations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1978.Google Scholar
Miller, J.M., Kinnally, E.L., Ogden, R.T., Oquendo, M.A., Mann, J.J., Parsey, R.V.Reported childhood abuse is associated with low serotonin transporter binding in vivo in major depressive disorder. Synapse 2009;63:565–573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peleikis, D.E., Mykletun, A., Dahl, A.A.The relative influence of childhood sexual abuse and other family background risk factors on adult adversities in female outpatients treated for anxiety disorders and depression. Child Abuse Negl 2004;28:61–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penza, K.M., Heim, C., Nemeroff, C.B.Neurobiological effects of childhood abuse: implications for the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety. Arch Womens Ment Health 2003;6:15–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pirkola, S.P., Isometsa, E., Suvisaari, J., Aro, H., Joukamaa, M., Poikolainen, K., et al.DSM-IV mood-, anxiety- and alcohol use disorders and their comorbidity in the Finnish general population – results from the Health 2000 Study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2005;40:1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polanczyk, G., Caspi, A., Williams, B., Price, T.S., Danese, A., Sugden, K., et al.Protective effect of CRHR1 gene variants on the development of adult depression following childhood maltreatment: replication and extension. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:978–985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Power, R.A., Lecky-Thompson, L., Fisher, H.L., Cohen-Woods, S., Hosang, G.M., Uher, R., et al.The interaction between child maltreatment, adult stressful life events and the 5-HTTLPR in major depression. J Psychiatr Res 2013;47:1032–1035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, K.T., Harris, W.W., Putnam, F.W.Synergistic childhood adversities and complex adult psychopathology. J Trauma Stress 2013;26:435–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Radloff, L.S.The CES-D scale: a self report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas 1977;1:385–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ressler, K.J., Bradley, B., Mercer, K.B., Deveau, T.C., Smith, A.K., Gillespie, C.F., et al.Polymorphisms in CRHR1 and the serotonin transporter loci: gene x gene x environment interactions on depressive symptoms. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2010;153B:812–824.Google ScholarPubMed
RevMan, Review Manager. Version 5.2. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration; 2012.Google Scholar
Ritchie, K., Jaussent, I., Stewart, R., Dupuy, A.M., Courtet, P., Ancelin, M.L., et al.Association of adverse childhood environment with late-life depression. J Clin Psychiatry 2009;70:1281–1288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L.N., Cottler, L., Bucholtz, K., Compton, W.Diagnostic Interview Schedule for DSM-IV. St Louis, MO: Washington University; 1995.Google Scholar
Runyon, M.K., Deblinger, E., Ryan, E.E., Thakkar-Kolar, R.An overview of child physical abuse: developing an integrated parent-child cognitive-behavioral treatment approach. Trauma Violence Abuse 2004;5:65–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rush, A.J., Gullion, C.M., Basco, M.R., Jarrett, R.B., Trivedi, M.H.The Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (IDS): psychometric properties. Psychol Med 1996;26:477–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheehan, D.V., Lecrubier, Y., Sheehan, K.H., Janavs, J., Weiller, E., Keskiner, A., et al.The validity of the mini international neuropsychiatric interview (MINI) according to the SCID-P and its reliability. Eur Psychiatry 1997;12:232–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spitzer, R.L., Williams, J.B.W., Gibbon, M., First, M.B.Structured clinical interview for DSM-III-R (SCID). Inc: American Psychiatric Press; 1990.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R.L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J.B.Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: the PHQ primary care study. Primary care evaluation of mental disorders. Patient Health Questionnaire. JAMA 1999;282:1737–1744.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Springer, K.W., Sheridan, J., Kuo, D., Carnes, M.Long-term physical and mental health consequences of childhood physical abuse: results from a large population-based sample of men and women. Child Abuse Negl 2007;31:517–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stock, J.L., Bell, M.A., Boyer, D.K., Connell, F.A.Adolescent pregnancy and sexual risk-taking among sexually abused girls. Fam Plann Perspect 1997;29:200–3, 27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrka, A.R., Price, L.H., Gelernter, J., Schepker, C., Anderson, G.M., Carpenter, L.L.Interaction of childhood maltreatment with the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor gene: effects on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity. Biol Psychiatry 2009;66:681–685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Veen, T., Wardenaar, K.J., Carlier, I.V., Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B.W., Zitman, F.G.Are childhood and adult life adversities differentially associated with specific symptom dimensions of depression and anxiety? Testing the tripartite model. J Affect Disord 2013;146:238–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, G., Shea, B., O’connell, D., Peterson, J., Welch, V., Losos, M., et al.The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analysis. 2010.Google Scholar
WHO global consultation on violence and health. Violence: a public health priority (WHO/EHA/SPI.POA.2). Génève: World Health Organisation; 1999.Google Scholar
Widom, C.S., DuMont, K., Czaja, S.J.A prospective investigation of major depressive disorder and comorbidity in abused and neglected children grown up. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:49–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiersma, J.E., Hovens, J.G., van Oppen, P., Giltay, E.J., van Schaik, D.J., Beekman, A.T., et al.The importance of childhood trauma and childhood life events for chronicity of depression in adults. J Clin Psychiatry 2009;70:983–989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wing, J.K., Cooper, J.E., Sartorius, N.The measurement and classification of psychiatric symptoms. London: Cambridge University Press; 1974.Google Scholar
Wing, J.K., Babor, T., Brugha, T., Burke, J., Cooper, J.E., Giel, R., et al.SCAN. Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:589–593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittchen, H.U., Robins, L.N., Cottler, L.B., Sartorius, N., Burke, J.D., Regier, D.Cross-cultural feasibility, reliability and sources of variance of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). The Multicentre WHO/ADAMHA Field Trials. Br J Psychiatry 1991;159:645–53, 58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, E.A., Abelson, J.L., Curtis, G.C., Nesse, R.M.Childhood adversity and vulnerability to mood and anxiety disorders. Depress Anxiety 1997;5:66–72.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zavaschi, M.L., Graeff, M.E., Menegassi, M.T., Mardini, V., Pires, D.W., Carvalho, R.H., et al.Adult mood disorders and childhood psychological trauma. Rev Bras Psiquiatr 2006;28:184–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.