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Animal Welfare and the WTO: The Legality and Implications of Live Export Restrictions under International Trade Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2025

Radhika Chaudhri
Radhika Chaudhri*
Affiliation:
The Australian National University
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Abstract

In Australia, controversial incidents regarding the treatment of live animals exported from Australia spark regular debate on whether the live export trade should be banned or more tightly regulated. Government responses to public outcry often take the form of restrictions on the trade of the animals concerned, but the legality of unilateral measures of this kind is yet to be directly considered by the World Trade Organization's Appellate Body. This article examines the legality of imposing restrictions on live export under the international trade law regime set up by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (‘GATT’), and in particular, whether such measures could be justified under Article XX. In exploring this question, special attention is given to the Australian government's new regulatory framework, as introduced by the Export Control (Animals) Amendment Order 2012 (No 1), which imposes an exporter supply chain assurance obligation on Australian suppliers. In addition, in light of the continued calls from animal welfare groups to ban the trade entirely, the legality of a complete moratorium on live exports will also be considered. Although the exceptions in Articles XX(b) and XX(g) of the GATT appear to be relevant to live exports, ultimately any regulation might be best supported under the ‘public morals’ exception in Article XX(a). However, care will need to be taken in the design of any restriction to avoid breaching the strict chapeau requirements of Article XX.

Type
Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 42 , Issue 2 , June 2014 , pp. 279 - 307
Copyright
Copyright © 2014 The Australian National University

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Footnotes

The author is a recent B Laws (Hons)/B Arts graduate from The Australian National University. The author would like to thank Mr Wayne Morgan for his support, guidance and advice over successive drafts of this piece, all of which were of great value. In addition, a debt of gratitude is owed to Associate Professor James Stellios for his suggestions for the drafting of this article.

References

1 Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, opened for signature 15 April 1994, 1869 UNTS 190, (entered into force 1 January 1995) annex 1A (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994) (‘GATT’).

2 Bill Farmer, ‘Independent Review of Australia's Live Export Trade’ (21 October 2011) x.

3 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Live Animal Export Trade (11 August 2011) <http://www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/welfare/export-trade>.

4 Ibid.

5 Farmer, above n 2, x.

6 Australian Meat and Livestock Industry Act 1997 (Cth) ss 3, 15; Export Control (Animals) Amendment Order 2012 (No 1) s 4.

7 Export Control (Animals) Amendment Order 2012 (No 1) s 10.

8 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines (Model Codes of Practice) (26 November 2011) <http://www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/welfare/model_code_of_practice_for_the_welfare_of_animals>.

9 World Organisation for Animal Health, OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (20th ed), (adopted May 2011).

10 See, eg, Animals Australia, Ban Live Export: Frequently Asked Questions, (2012) <http://www.banliveexport.com/facts/frequently-asked-questions.php>.

11 See, eg, Animals Australia, Live Animal Exports: The Issues (2011) <http://eurogroupforanimals.org/about-us/our-network>.

12 Laura Neilson, The WTO, Animals and PPMs (2007), 98-9.

13 Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ‘A Bloody Business’, Four Corners, 30 May 2011, (Sarah Ferguson) <http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2011/s3230934.htm>.

14 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, ‘Minister Ludwig announces suspension of trade to certain facilities’ (Media Release, DAFF 11/139L, 31 May 2011) <http://www.maff.gov.au/archives/ludwig/Pages/Media_Office/Media_Releases/2011/may/ludwig-announces-suspension-of-trade-to-certain-facilities.aspx.>.

15 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, ‘Minister suspends live cattle trade to Indonesia’ (Media Release, DAFF11/174L, 8 June 2011) <http://www.daff.gov.au/ludwig/media_office/media_releases/media_releases/2011/june/minister-suspends-live-cattle-trade-to-indonesia>.

16 See, eg, European Communities — Certain Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, DS369 (‘EC — Seals’).

17 See, eg, Galantucci, Robert, ‘Compassionate Consumerism within the GATT Regime: Can Belgium's Ban on Seal Product Imports be Justified Under Article XX?’ (2009) 39 California Western International Law Journal 281Google Scholar; Linzey, Andrew, ‘An Ethical Critique of the Canadian Seal Hunt and an Examination of the Case for Import Controls on Seal Products’ (2006) 2 Journal of Animal Law 87Google Scholar; Thomas, Edward, ‘Playing Chicken at the WTO: Defending an Animal Welfare-Based Trade Restriction Under GATT's Moral Exception’ (2007) 34(3) Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 605.Google Scholar

18 Live Animal Export Restriction and Prohibition Bill 2011 (Cth); Live Animal Export (Slaughter) Prohibition Bill 2011 (Cth).

19 Farmer, above n 2, 92.

20 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, ‘Gillard Government reforms live export trade’ (Media Release, DAFF11/240L, 21 October 2011) <http://www.daff.gov.au/ludwig/media_office/media_releases/media_releases/2011/october/gillard-government-reforms-live-export-trade>.

21 See, eg, RSPCA, Live Export Review a Missed Opportunity, (22 October 2011) <http://www.rspca.org.au/news/live-export-review-a-missed-opportunity-rspca.html>.

22 GATT art XX(g).

23 Appellate Body Report, United States - Import Prohibitions of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/AB/R (12 October 1998) (‘US — Shrimp’).

24 Nielson, above n 12, 174.

25 US — Shrimp [127].

26 Ibid [129].

27 Ibid [128] (emphasis added).

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid [132].

30 Ibid.

31 GATT Panel Report, Canada - Measures Affecting Exports of Unprocessed Herring and Salmon, GATT Doc L/6268-35S/98 (20 November 1987, adopted 22 March 1988).

32 GATT Panel Report, United States - Restrictions on the Imports of Tuna, GATT Doc DS21/R - 39S/155 (3 September 1991, unadopted).

33 GATT Panel Report, United States - Restrictions on Imports of Tuna, DS29/R (16 June 1994, unadopted) (‘US — Tuna II’).

34 US — Shrimp [130].

35 US — Shrimp [135].

36 Ibid [141].

37 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331, (entered into force 27 January 1980) (‘VCLT’) art 31(1) (which reflects customary international law and which the AB has stated must be applied in Appellate Body Report, United States - Standards for Conventional and Reformulated Gasoline, WT/DS2/AB/R (29 April 1996) [17] (‘US — Gasoline’)).

38 Oxford Dictionaries Online, ‘conservation’ (2011) <http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/conservation>.

39 US — Shrimp [129].

40 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, opened for signature 3 March 1973, 993 UNTS 243, (entered into force 1 July 1975) (‘CITES’).

41 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, opened for signature 23 June 1979, 1651 UNTS 355, (entered into force 1 November 1983) (‘The Bonn Convention’).

42 Convention on Biological Diversity, opened for signature 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79, (entered into force 29 December 1993) (‘CBD’).

43 CITES art XI(3)(c); The Bonn Convention art I(c)(1); CBD art 2.

44 Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, opened for signature 1 August 1980, 22301 UNTS 1329, (entered into force 7 April 1982) (‘CCAMLR’).

45 Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna, opened for signature 10 May 1993, 1819 UNTS 359, (entered into force 20 May 1994) (‘SBT Convention’).

46 See, eg, SBT Convention, art 3; CCAMLR, art II(2).

47 Condon, Bradly, ‘GATT Article XX and Proximity of Interest: Determining the Subject Matter of Paragraphs b and g’ (2004) 9(2) UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs 137, 139.Google Scholar

48 US — Shrimp [151].

49 David Adams and Allan Sheridan, ‘Specifying the Risks to Animal Welfare Associated With Livestock Slaughter without Induced Insensibility’ (Research Paper, Australian Animal Welfare Working Group of the Animal Health Committee), 12.

50 Ibid.

51 Farmer, above n 2, xvi.

52 Australian Standard for the Hygienic Production of Meat and Meat Products for Human Consumption 2007 (Cth, ACT, NT, NSW, Vic, Qld, Tas, SA, WA) r 7.10.

53 Ibid r 7.12.

54 Animals Australia, Ritual Slaughter in Australia (23 June 2011) <http://www.animalsaustralia.org/features/ritual_slaughter.php>; see also RSPCA, Humane Slaughter (2011) <http://www.politicalanimal.org.au/election-information/humane-slaughter>.

55 Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Stunning optional in new live export rules, (21 October 2011) ABC News <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-10-21/new-live-export-rules/3591842>.

56 RSPCA, Live Export Review a Missed Opportunity, above n 20.

57 US — Shrimp [133].

58 Ibid.

59 GATT art XX(b).

60 Panel Report, United States - Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline WT/DS2/R (29 January 1996) (‘US — Gasoline (Panel)’).

61 See, eg, Appellate Body Report, European Communities - Measures Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-containing Products, WT/DS135/AB/R (12 March 2001) [155] (EC - Asbestos); Panel Report, European Communities - Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries, WT/DS246/R (1 December 2003) [7.197]-[7.199] (‘EC - Tariff Preferences’).

62 US — Gasoline (Panel) [6.20].

63 Ibid.

64 Ibid.

65 GATT Panel Report, Thailand - Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes, GATT Doc DS10/R (5 October 1990, adopted 7 November 1990) (‘Thailand — Cigarettes’).

66 Ibid [73].

67 US — Gasoline (Panel) [6.21].

68 Panel Report, European Communities - Measures Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-containing Products, WT/DS135/R (18 September 2000) [8.182].

69 Ibid.

70 Ibid [8.188].

71 Farmer, above n 2, 2.

72 Ibid 18-23.

73 See, eg, EC — Asbestos, [164]; EC — Tariff Preferences, [7.211]; Appellate Body Report, United States — Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/AB/R (7 April 2005) [306] (‘US – Gambling’).

74 Appellate Body Report, Korea - Measures Affecting Imports of Fresh, Chilled and Frozen Beef, WT/DS169/AB/R (11 December 2000) [161] (‘Korea — Beef’).

75 Ibid [162].

76 Ibid [163].

77 Ibid.

78 Appellate Body Report, China - Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and Audiovisual Entertainment Products, WT/DS363/AB/R (21 December 2009) [242] (‘China — Publications’) (emphasis added).

79 See, eg, McGrady, Benn, ‘Necessity Exceptions in WTO Law: Retreaded Tyres, Regulatory Purpose and Cumulative Regulatory Measures’ (2009) 12(1) Journal of International Economic Law 153, 162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

80 Ibid.

81 Appellate Body Report, Brazil — Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres, WT/DS332/AB/R (3 December 2007) [144] (‘Brazil — Tyres’).

82 Ibid.

83 China — Publications [243].

84 Discussed below in Part 4.

85 World Organisation for Animal Health, The OIE's objectives and achievements in animal welfare (21 September 2011) <http://www.oie.int/animal-welfare/animal-welfare-key-themes/>.

86 World Organisation for Animal Health, OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (20th ed), (adopted May 2011).

87 Adams and Sheriden, above n 49, 19.

88 Animal Welfare Act 1992 (ACT); Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 (NSW); Animal Welfare Act (NT); Animal Care and Protection Act 2001 (Qld); Animal Welfare Act 1995 (SA); Animal Welfare Act 1993 (Tas); Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986 (Vic); Animal Welfare Act 1996 (WA).

89 Animal Welfare Committee (14 December 2010) <http://www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/animal/committees/ahc/awwg>.

90 National Consultative Committee on Animal Welfare (29 July 2008) <http://www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/welfare/nccaw>.

91 Brazil — Tyres [145].

92 EC — Asbestos.

93 Brazil — Tyres.

94 US — Shrimp.

95 China — Publications.

96 Korea — Beef [163].

97 Brazil — Tyres [144].

98 Ibid [150].

99 EC — Asbestos [174].

100 Galantucci, above n 16, 298.

101 US — Gambling [308].

102 Brazil — Tyres [156].

103 US — Gambling [308].

104 Thailand — Cigarettes [74] (emphasis added).

105 McGrady, above n 79, 157.

106 Ibid.

107 Brazil — Tyres [144].

108 Animals Australia, Live Animal Exports: The Issues, above n 11.

109 Animals Australia and RSPCA, Live Exports to Indonesia: Overview, (2011) <http://www.banliveexport.com/documents/FactSheet-Overview.pdf>.

110 GATT art XX(a).

111 US — Gambling [294].

112 Ibid.

113 Ibid [292].

114 See, eg, Cook, Kate and Bowles, David, ‘Growing Pains: The Developing Relationship of Animal Welfare Standards and the World Trade Rules’ (2010) 19(2) Review of European Community and International Environmental Law 227, 231CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Galantucci, above n 17, 287; Linzey, above n 17, 113.

115 Panel Reports, European Communities – Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, WT/DS400/R and WT/DS401/R (Nov. 25, 2013) (EC – Seal Products).

116 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature 4 November 1950, 213 UNTS 221 (entered into force 3 September 1953).

117 Crawford, James (ed), Brownlie's Principles of Public International Law (Oxford University Press, 8th ed, 2012), 576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

118 James and Others, European Court of Human Rights, Judgment of 21 February 1986, Series A, No 98, [46].

119 Steiner, Henry, Alston, Philip and Goodman, Ryan, International Human Rights in Context (Oxford University Press, 3rd ed, 2007), 965.Google Scholar

120 Shany, Yuval, ‘Toward a General Margin of Appreciation Doctrine in International Law?’ (2005) 16(5) European Journal of International Law 907, 912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

121 Jouannet, Emmanuelle, ‘Universalism and Imperialism: The True-False Paradox of International Law?’ (2007) 18(3) European Journal of International Law 379, 380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

122 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America) [1996] ICJ General List No 90, [73] (‘Oil Platforms’); Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States) (Judgment) [1986] ICJ Rep 14.

123 Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia)(Judgment) [1997] ICJ Rep 7.

124 Oil Platforms [73]; Note in particular the objective language of Article XX of the GATT, particularly in contrast to Article XXI, which does couch rights and obligations in more subjective language — a point that was alluded to during the merits phase of Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States) [1986] ICJ Rep 14.

125 Wu, Mark, ‘Free Trade and the Protection of Public Morals: An Analysis of the Newly Emerging Public Morals Clause Doctrine’ (2007) 33 The Yale Journal of International Law 215, 231.Google Scholar

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128 Panel Report, United States — Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/R (10 November 2004) [6.465] (‘US - Gambling (Panel)’).

129 Ibid [6.461].

130 Diebold, above n 126, 67.

131 US — Gambling [296].

132 US — Gambling (Panel) [6.471].

133 Ibid [6.473].

134 EC – Seal Products [7.631].

135 Ibid [7.370].

136 Ibid [7.632].

137 Farmer, above n 2, 4.

138 World Organisation for Animal Health, The OIE's objectives and achievements in animal welfare, above n 85.

139 See additional materials in Nielson, above n 12.

140 See, eg, United Kingdom (Animal Welfare Act 2006), the United States of America (Animal Welfare Act 1966), Canada (Health of Animals Act 1990, Meat Inspection Act 1985), India (The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960), South Korea (Korean Animal Protection Law 2008) and South Africa (Animals Protection Act 1962).

141 Diebold, above n 126, 69.

142 See, eg, ibid 71.

143 EC – Seal Products [7.636] – [7.637].

144 Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, opened for signature 15 April 1994, 1867 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 January 1995) annex 1A (Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures) 1867 UNTS 493.

145 Humane Society International, ‘Annual Report’ (2009).

146 International Foundation for Animal Welfare, Who We Are (2011) <http://www.ifaw.org/ifaw_asia_pacific/who_we_are/index.php>.

147 World Society for the Protection of Animals, ‘Global Review’ (2010).

148 Compassion in World Farming, ‘Annual Report’ (2009/2010).

149 People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, ‘Annual Review’ (2010).

150 Eurogroup for Animals, Our Network (2011) <http://eurogroupforanimals.org/about-us/our-network>.

151 China — Publications [243].

152 Ibid.

153 US — Shrimp [147].

154 Brazil — Tyres [215]; US — Shrimp [151]; US — Gasoline 23.

155 US — Shrimp [159].

156 Ibid.

157 Ibid [150].

158 Ibid (emphasis added).

159 Ibid [160]. See also: US — Gambling [339].

160 Brazil — Tyres [216].

161 Korea — Beef; GATT Panel Report, Panel on Import, Distribution and Sale of Alcoholic Drinks by Canadian Provincial Marketing Agencies, GATT Doc L/6304-35S/37 (5 February 1988 [adopted on 22 March 1988]).

162 Brazil — Tyres [215]; US — Shrimp [151]; US — Gasoline 23.

163 US - Shrimp [161].

164 Ibid (emphasis added).

165 See, eg, Appellate Body Report, Australia — Measures Affecting Importation of Salmon, WT/DS18/AB/R (20 October 1998).

166 See, eg, Aaronson, Susan, ‘Seeping in Slowly: How Human Rights Concerns are Penetrating the WTO’ (2007) 6(3) World Trade Review 413CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Biermann, Frank, ‘The Rising Tide of Green Unilateralism in World Trade Law: Options for Reconciling the Emerging North–South Conflict’ (2001) 35(3) Journal of World Trade 421CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cleveland, Sarah, ‘Human Rights Sanctions and International Trade: A Theory of Compatibility’ (2002) 5(1) Journal of International Economic Law 133CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Doelle, Meinhard, ‘Climate Change and the WTO: Opportunities to Motivate State Action on Climate Change through the World Trade Organization’ (2004) 13(1) Review of European Community and International Environmental Law 85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

167 US — Shrimp [165].

168 Animals Australia, Ritual Slaughter in Australia, above n 53. See also RSPCA, Humane Slaughter (2011) <http://www.politicalanimal.org.au/election-information/humane-slaughter>.

169 US — Shrimp [164].

170 Farmer, above n 2, 84.

171 US — Shrimp [166].

172 Ibid [167].

173 Ibid [168].

174 Ibid [169].

175 Ibid [170].

176 Ibid [172].

177 US —Gasoline 27.

178 US — Shrimp [158].

179 Appellate Body Report, United States - Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products Recourse to Article 21.5 of the DSU by Malaysia, WT/DS58/AB/RW (22 October 2001) [124].

180 Ibid; US — Tuna II.

181 Farmer, above n 2, 91.

182 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, ‘Gillard Government reforms live export trade’, above n 20.

183 US — Shrimp [177].

184 Ibid [180].

185 Ibid [181].

186 Ibid [180].

187 Farmer, above n 2, 79.

188 Ibid.

189 US — Gasoline 29.

190 Panel Report, United States - Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products Recourse to Article 21.5 of the DSU by Malaysia, WT/DS58/RW (15 June 2001) [5.142].

191 Brazil —Tyres [251].

192 Panel Report, Argentina - Measures Affecting the Export of Bovine Hides and the Import of Finished Leather, WT/DS155/R (19 December 2000)(emphasis added).

193 US — Gasoline 25.

194 Farmer, above n 2, 9.

195 EC — Asbestos.