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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 January 2025
The existence and potential scope of a Commonwealth constitutional immunity from State law has been a vexed issue ever since the High Court decided its first case on this question in 1904 There have been major shifts in the approach of the Court over the last century, and the doctrines expounded by the Court have been subjected to an unusually large volume of academic criticism. The operation of Section 64 of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth), together with the presumption of crown immunity, have in many cases prevented the question of constitutional immunity from arising. There are, however, a range of situations in which the constitutional issue will still arise. More importantly, the Commonwealth immunity from State law remains a highly relevant topic because of the significance of the constitutional issues that it raises. The debate over the existence and scope of the immunity reflects a broader uncertainty as to the form of federalism created by the Australian Constitution.
In this article, I will argue that the Commonwealth immunity from State law must be recognised as a constitutional implication. Although there has been some acknowledgment that the immunity is an implication, there has been little consideration of the consequences that might follow from this.
This article is a revised version of an honours thesis completed at the Australian National University Faculty of Law. I would like to thank Adrienne Stone, Matthew Darke, Geraldine Chin and Amelia Simpson for their assistance with this article.
1 D'Emden v Pedder (1904) 1 CLR 91. See, eg, Geoffrey Sawer, Australian Federalism in the Courts (1967) 126.
2 Nicolee Dixon, 'Limiting the Doctrine of Intergovernmental Immunity' (1993) 9 Queensland University of Technology Law Journal 1; John Doyle, ''1947 Revisited: The Immunity of the Commonwealth from State Law' in Geoffrey Lindell (ed), Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law, (1994); Gareth Evans, 'Rethinking Commonwealth Immunity' (1972) 8 Melbourne University Law Review 521; Colin Howard, 'Some Problems of Commonwealth Immunity and Exclusive Legislative Powers' (1972) 5 Federal Law Review 31; HP Lee, 'Commonwealth Liability to State Law - The Enigmatic Case of Pirrie v McFarlane' (1987) 17 Federal Law Review 132; RP Meagher and WMC Gummow, 'Sir Owen Dixon's Heresy' (1980) 54 Australian Law Journal 25; Igor Mescher, 'Wither Commonwealth Immunity' (1998) 17 Australian Bar Review 23; Ronald Sackville, 'The Doctrine of the Immunity of Instrumentalities in the United States and Australia: A Comparative Analysis' (1969) 7 Melbourne University Law Review 15; Geoffrey Sawer, 'State Statutes and the Commonwealth' (1961) 1 University of Tasmania Law Review 580; Leslie Zines, 'Sir Owen Dixon's Theory of Federalism' (1965) 1 Federal Law Review 221.
3 This provision has the effect of submitting the Commonwealth to State law once a 'suit' has commenced. See, eg, Susan Kneebone, 'Claims Against the Commonwealth and States and their Instrumentalities in Federal Jurisdiction: Section 64 of the Judiciary Act' (1996) 24 Federal Law Review 93;see also below n 6.
4 There is a now rather weak presumption that the Crown is not bound by the general words of statutory provisions. See especially Bropho v WesternAustralia (1990) 171 CLR 1, 23. See also Commonwealth v Western Australia (1999) 196 CLR 392, 410 (Gleeson CJ and Gaudron J).
5 While both of these topics are, in practice, closely connected to the issue of Commonwealth constitutional immunity, they are beyond the scope of this article.
6 For instance, where Section 64 does not apply because there is no 'suit'. See Kneebone,above n 3.
7 Mark Gladman, ''Re the Residential Tenancies Tribunal of NSW and Henderson; Ex Parte Defence Housing Authority (1997) 190 CL 410: States' Power to Bind the Commonwealth'' (1998) 27 Federal Law Review 151, 151; Doyle, above n 2, 49, 68-72; Sackville, above n 2, 15.
8 Doyle, above n 2; Jeremy Kirk, ''Constitutional Implications from RepresentativeDemocracy'' (1995) 23 Federal Law Review 37, 67.
9 D'''Emden v Pedder' (1904) 1 CLR 91.
10 Re Residential Tenancies Tribunal (NSW); Ex Parte Defence Housing Authority (1997) 190 CLR(''Residential Tenancies'').
11 Cole v Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360, 385.
12 Leslie Zines, 'The Federal Balance' in Gregory Craven (ed), The Convention Debates 1891-1898: Commentaries, Indices and Guide (1986) 81-84.
13 (1997) 190 CLR 410. See also Commonwealth v Western Australia (1999) 196 CLR 392,409(Gleeson CJ and Gaudron J), 421 (McHugh J,472 (Hayne J.
14 McCulloch v Maryland 17 US (4 Wheat) 316 (1819). See Sackville, above n 2, 19-24.
15 D''Emden v Pedder (1904) 1 CLR 91, 110-111 (Griffith CJ). The doctrine received a reciprocal application in Federated Amalgamated Government Railway and Tramway Service Association v New South Wales Railway Traffic Employees Association (1906) 4 CLR 488.
16 (1920) 28 CLR 129 ('Engineers').
17 Ibid 144 (Knox CJ, Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ).
18 Ibid 155.
19 (1925) 36 CLR 170.
20 The majority consisted of Knox CJ, Higgins and Starke JJ. Isaacs and Rich JJ d?issented for reasons unconnected with any principle of immunity.
21 Pirrie v McFarlane (1925) 36 CLR 170, 226-227.
22 (1937) 56 CLR 657, 681-683 (Dixon J) (''West'').
23 (1940) 63 CLR 278, 299 (Dixon J).
24 (1947) 74 CLR 31 ('Melbourne Corporation').
25 Ibid 66 (Rich J), 70 (Starke J), 83 (Dixon J).
26 Ibid 82.
27 (1947) 74 CLR 508 (''Uther'').
28 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129, 143-144. See also Leslie Zines, above n 2, 225-227.
29 Uther (1947) 74 CLR 508, 513 (Latham CJ), 522 (Rich J), 524 (Starke J), 536 (Williams J).
30 Ibid 520-521. See below Pt IV.
31 Ibid 528.
32 Ibid 529.
33 Ibid.
34 ibid
35 Ibid 529-530.
36 Melbourne Corporation (1947) 74 CLR 31, 83.
37 Uther (1947) 74 CLR 508, 529-531.
38 (1962) 108 CLR 372 (''(Cigamatic)'').
39 Dixon CJ's view received the support of Kitto, Menzies, Windeyer and Owen JJ. McTiernanand Taylor JJ would have upheld Uther.
40 Cigamatic (1962) 108 CLR 372, 377.
41 Ibid 377-378.
42 Ibid 377.
43 (1953) 89 CLR 229 ('('Bogle')').
44 The case was concerned with whether an increase in accommodation charges at aCommonwealth migrant hostel violated the Victorian Prices Regulation Act 1948.
45 Bogle (1953) 89 CLR 229, 259 (Fullagar J), with whom Dixon CJ and Kitto J agreed. Webb J ''substantially agreed'' 255.
46 Ibid 260 (Fullagar J). On the 'affected by' doctrine, see Grant Donaldson, 'Commonwealth Liability to State Law' (1985-86) 16 Western Australia Law Review 135 Evans, above n 2, 532-547.
47 See generally, Gladman, above n 7 Mescher, above n 2 Leslie Zines, ''The Nature of theCommonwealth'' (1998) 20 Adelaide Law Review 83.
48 Section 64 of the Judiciary Act 1903 was applied in Maguire v Simpson (1977) 139 CLR 362 and Commonwealth v Evans Deakin Industries Ltd (1986) 161 CLR 254, removing the need to consider the constitutional immunity. See also Kneebone, above n 3.
49 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410.
50 Brennan CJ and Dawson, Toohey, Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ found the New South Wales law valid. Kirby J dissented on the basis that the State law wasinconsistent with the Commonwealth law.
51 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 424-5 (Brennan CJ), 438-439 (Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ). See also below Part III. Gladman, above n 7, discusses the differences between the joint judgment and that of Brennan CJ.
52 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 439 (Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).
53 Ibid 458-460 (McHugh J), 463-472 (Gummow J).
54 Ibid 499-509 (Kirby J).
55 Ibid 440.
56 Ibid. See above at n 34 and n 35.
57 Ibid 440.
58 Ibid 441.
59 Uther (1947) 74 CLR 508, 530.
60 Meagher and Gummow, above n 2, 28; see also Doyle, above n 2, 62-63.
61 See Constitution Act 1855 (NSW). See generally Powell v Appollo Candle Co (1885) 10 App.Cas 282; Union Steamship v King (1988) 166 CLR 1.
62 Although it could be argued that such corporations and persons come within the power ofthe States because they are of the same general category as previous subjects of State law. As Leslie Zines has noted, if the claim is that the Commonwealth is in a special category, 'we are driven back to the nature of the federal system' — The High Court and the Constitution (4th ed, 1997) 361. This is more appropriately the subject of an implication.
63 Uther (1947) 74 CLR 508, 530-531.
64 Meagher and Gummow, above n 2, 28-29. See A-G (Vic) v Commonwealth (1962) 107 CLR529; Murphyores Incorporated Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1976) 136 CLR 1, 19-23 (Mason J), 11 (Stephen J);; Fairfax v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1965) 114 CLR 1; Actors and Announcers Equity Association v Fontana Films Pty. Ltd. (1982) 150 CLR 169.
65 Uther (1947) 74 CLR 508, 521.
66 Uther (1947) 74 CLR 508, 521 (Latham CJ).
67 A characterisation approach to State immunity was advocated by Latham CJ in Melbourne Corporation (1947) 74 CLR 31 61-62 and by BarwikCJ in Victoria v Commonwealth (The Payroll Tax Case) (1971) 122 CLR 353, 372-373 ('Payroll Tax Case'), but was rejected in Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 158 CLR 1, 150-152 (Mason J), 215 (Brennan J); Queensland Electricity Commission v Commonwealth (1985) 159 CLR 192, 215 (Mason J).
68 Bogle (1953) 89 CLR 229, 259. See also Payroll Tax Case (1971) 122 CLR 353, 373 379-80 (Barwick CJ).
69 Doyle, above n 2, 56-65; Evans, above n 2, 527-529.
70 (1920) 28 CLR 129, 152-153 (Knox CJ, Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ).
71 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 505-506 (Kirby J). Although the doctrine of the indivisibility of the Crown has been subjec to criticism - see, eg, Minister for Works v Gulson (1944) 69 CLR 338, 350 (Latham CJ). It was not evendiscussed in Uther or Cigamatic let alone rejected.
72 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 446.
73 Doyle, above n 2, 60. The author refers to the cases of Public Curator of Queensland v Morris (1951) 51 SR (NSW) 402; Commissioner for Railways v Peters (1991) 102 ALR 579, 589; A-G (Eng) v Sorati [1969] VR 89, 99.
74 Geoffrey Sawer, ;Implication and the Constitution, Part I; (1948-1950) 4 Res Judicatae 15, 20.
75 Brennan CJ's judgment in Residential Tenancies is quite ambiguous on this point.
76 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 503-504.
77 Ibid 451.
78 For an interesting parallel with the recent decision of the Court in Re Wakim; Ex Parte McNally (1999) 163 ALR 270, see Graeme Hill, 'The Demise of Cross-Vesting' (1999) 27 Federal Law Review 547, 573-575. Hill argued that the majority, in finding that the States have no power to confer jurisdiction on federal courts, were, without specifically acknowledging this, drawing a negative implication. Hill goes on to contend that this implication is inconsistent with the approach to implications adopted in Lange v Australian Broadcasting Commission (1997) 189 CLR 520 (;Lange'); see also Dennis Rose, 'The Bizarre Destruction of Cross Vesting' in Adrienne Stone and George Williams (eds), The High Court at the Crossroads, (2000), 191-194.
79 Melbourne Corporation (1947) 74 CLR 31, 82.
80 There have also been suggestions of a ;nationhood power; as an implication which operates to expand the scope of Commonwealth power - see Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1, 187-188 (Dixon J); Victoria v Commonwealth and Hayden (1975) 134 CLR 338, 397 (Mason J); Davis v Commonwealth (1988) 196 CLR 79, 110-111 (Brennan J).
81 See Australian Postal Commission v Dao [1985] 3 NSWLR 565, 597-598 (McHugh J); LeslieZines ;The Commonwealth' in Gregory Craven (ed), Australian Federation Towards the Second Century, (1992), 92-94; Zines, above n 62, 362.
82 Stephens v West Australian Newspapers (1994) 182 CLR 211, 232-234 (Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ), 236 (Brennan J). The case for consistency of approach is even clearer where, as here, the implication limiting the States would derive from the Commonwealth Constitution.
83 (1992) 177 CLR 106 ;Political Broadcasts;).
84 Ibid 135.
85 (1985) 159 CLR 192 ;'Queensland Electricity Commission';). See especially Political Broadcasts (1992) 177 CLR 06, 134-135.
86 (1997) 189 CLR 520.
87 Ibid 566-567.
88 Ibid.
89 Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1, 42-45 (Brennan J) 69-73 (Deane and Toohey JJ) Political Broadcasts(1992) 177 CLR 106, 181 186 (Dawson J), 230-232 (McHugh J), 208-215 (GaudronJ). See also Kirk, above n 8, 66- 68 Zines, above n 62, 378-379.
90 In Commonwealth v Western Australia (1999) 196 CLR 392, 418, Gleeson CJ and Gaudron J,while not expressly invoking the Langetest, found that particular powers possessed by the Commonwealth left 'no room' for an implied immunity of the Commonwealth from State laws which operated with respect to land set aside for defence purposes.
91 Stephen Donaghue, 'The Clamour of Silent Constitutional Principles' (1996) 24 Federal Law Review 133, 159.
92 Australian National Airways Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1945) 71 CLR 29, 85 (Dixon J); Lamshed v Lake (1958) 99 CLR 132, 144-145 (Dixon J).
93 Kirk, above n 8, 65-66.
94 On 'literalism' and 'legalism', see generally, Michael Coper and George Williams (eds), How Many Cheers for Engineers? (1997); Zines, above n 62, 424-433; Tony Blackshield and George Williams, Australian Constitutional Law and Theory: Commentary and Materials (2nd ed, 1998), 236-243, 245-251; Gregory Craven, 'The Crisis of Constitutional Literalism in Australia' in HP Lee and George Winterton (eds) Australian Constitutional Perspectives,(1992).
95 (1985) 159 CLR 192 at 212. See also per Brennan J at 230.
96 West (1937) 56 CLR 657, 681.
97 Ibid. This statement has been quoted with approval in Pay-Roll Tax Case (1971) 122 CLR 353, 401-402 (Windeyer J), 418 (Gibbs J); Political Broadcasts (1992) 177 CLR 106, 133-134 (Mason CJ); Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1, 42 (Brennan J), 69 (Deane and Toohey JJ). See also Essendon Corporation v Criterion Theatres Ltd (1947) 74 CLR 1, 22 (Dixon J).
98 Michael Coper, 'The High Court and Free Speech: Visions of Democracy or Delusions of Grandeur' (1994) 16 Sydney Law Review 185, 191-192; Adrienne Stone, 'The Limits of Constitutional Text and Structure: Standards of Review and the Freedom of Political Communication' (1999) 23 Melbourne University Law Review 668, 706; Kirk, above n 8, 69-73.
99 Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 197; 143 (Brennan J) ;Theophanous;). See also Sir Owen Dixon's speech on his appointment as Chief Justice in (1952) 85 CLR xiv.
100 The Payroll Tax Case (1971) 122 CLR 353, 402.
101 See the extra judicial comments of Sir Anthony Mason in ;The Role of a ConstitutionalCourt; (1986) 16 Federal Law Review 1, 5; and in 39;Trends in Constitutional Law; (1995) 18 University of New South Wales Law Journal 237, 237-238; Kirk, above n 8, 67; Bryan Horrigan, ;Paradigm Shift in Interpretation: Reframing Legal and Constitutional Reasoning; in Charles Sampford and Kim Preston (eds) Interpreting Constitutions (1996); Craven, above n 94.
102 Nicholas Aroney, ;A Seductive Plausibility: Freedom of Speech in the Constitution; (1995)18 University of Queensland Law Journal 249, 264-267; Jeffrey Goldsworthy, ;Implications in Language, Law and the Constitution;in Geoffrey Lindell (ed), Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law (1994); Jeffrey Goldsworthy, ;Constitutional Implications and Freedom of Political Speech: A Reply to Stephen Donaghue; (1997) 23 Monash University Law Review 362.
103 Contra Donaghue, above n 91.
104 See above n 102; Stone, above n 98; Leslie Zines, ;The Present State of ConstitutionalInterpretation; in Stone and Williams (eds), above n 78 227-228; Kirk, above n 8.
105 Stone, above n 98; see also, by the same author, ;Incomplete Theorizing in the High Court;(1998) 26 Federal Law Review 195; ;The Freedom of Political Communication Since Lange; in Stone and Williams, (eds) above n 78.
106 Ibid 696-699.
107 As witnessed by the disagreement of members of the court as well as by the academic criticism - see above n 102; Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104, 163 (Deane J), 188 (Dawson J),194 (McHugh J).
108 AR Blackshield, ;Implied Freedom of Communication; in Geoffrey Lindell (ed), Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law (1994), 239; Zines, above n 62, 391-392; Kirk,above n 8, 75-76.
109 Political Broadcasts (1992) 177 CLR 106, 186-187 (Dawson J), 229-233 (McHugh J);Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104, 19(McHugh J).
110 Political Broadcasts (1992) 177 CLR 106, 186-187 (Dawson J), 229-233 (McHugh J).
111 Ibid 187.
112 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 454 (McHugh J), 472 (Gummow J), 504-505 (Kirby J); Gladman, above n 7, 158-159 Zines, above n 47, 91-92; Bradley Selway,;The Nature of the Commonwealth: A Comment; (1998) 20 Adelaide Law Review 95, 99; Dennis Rose, ;The Nature of the Commonwealth: A Comment; (1998) 20 Adelaide Law Review 101, 105;Mescher, above n 2, 40.
113 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 454-455.
114 Mason, above n 101, 244-245; Zines, above n 62, 444-449.
115 Ibid 569. See also Cole v Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360, 383, 401.
116 Street v Queensland Bar Association (1989) 168 CLR 461, 569; Ngo Ngo Ha v New South Wales (1997) 189 CLR 465, 498 (Brennan CJ, McHugh, Gummow and Kirby JJ), 514 (Dawson,Toohey and Gaudron JJ); Cole v Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360, 383, 401.
117 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 440.
118 (1947) 74 CLR 31, 82 (Dixon J).
119 Queensland Electricity Commission (1985) 159 CLR 192, 217;Residential Tenancies (1997) 190CLR 410, 443.
120 Compare Cigamatic (1962) 108 CLR 372 with Victoria v Australian Building Construction Employees; and Builders Labourers; Federation (1982) 152 CLR 25, 93 where Mason J stated there is no secure foundation for an implication that the Parliament's legislative powers cannot affect the prerogative in right of the States, and the weight of judicial opinion... is against it.
121 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 440there is no secure foundation for an implication that the Parliament's legislative powers cannot affect the prerogative in right of the States, and the weight of judicial opinion... is against it.'441.
122 Although it has been argued that the recent application of this test in RE AustralianEducation Union; Ex Parte Victoria (1995) 184 CLR 188 goes beyond what is necessarily required by the structure of federalism. See Donaghue, above n 91, 162; see also Amelia Simpson, The Australian Education Union Case: A Quiet Revolution?' (1998) 7 Griffith Law Review 30.
123 As Michael Coper has observed, the discrimination limb of the principle is less clearlyconnected to the principle expressed in Melbourne Corporation. Michael Coper, Encounters With the Australian Constitution (1st ed, 1987) 191. In some cases, though, the concept of ;discrimination; hasbeen applied in such a way that the substantive question of the effect of the law on the Commonwealth has been addressed - see Zines, above n 62, 326-328.
124 It may also be possible that the principle is too narrow - in the sense that it failed to cover aState law that did threaten the independence of theCommonwealth, although it is difficult to imagine such a law which was not also discriminatory.
125 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 424.
126 Ibid 426.
127 George Winterton, Parliament,The Executive and the Governor General (1983) 27.
128 R v Credit Tribunal; Ex Parte General Motors Acceptance Corp Australia (1977) 137 CLR 545.The limits of the Commonwealth;s ability to prevent a State law being inconsistent with a Commonwealth law were outlined in University of Wollongong v Metwally (1984) 158 CLR 447
129 See, eg, Evans, above n 2, 547-557; Dixon, above n 2, 18-30; Howard, above n 2, 58.
130 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 507-508. See also Doyle, above n 2, 69-70; Colin McNairn, Governmental and Intergovernmental Immunity in Australia and Canada (2nd ed, 1978) 38; Mescher, above n 2, 41.
131 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 504.
132 Zines, above n 47, 95; Zines, above n 62, 364; Gladman, above n 7, 160, 163; Sawer, above n 1, 203-204; Geoffrey Sawer, ;Implication and the Constitution: Pt II' (1948-1950) 4 Res Judicatae 85, 90; Sackville, above n 2, 45, 64; Coper, above n 123, 192-193.
133 Uther (1947) 74 CLR 508, 520-521.
134 Ibid.
135 Pirrie v McFarlane (1925) 36 CLR 170, 180-184 (Knox CJ), 212-214 (Higgins J), 225-229 (Starke J); West (1937) 56 CLR 657, 664-669 (Latham CJ), 676-677 (Starke J), 711-714 (McTiernan J). Cf West (1937) 56 CLR 657, 681 (Dixon J), 684 (Evatt J).
136 Victoria v Commonwealth and Hayden (1975) 134 CLR 338, 379; see also 396 (Mason J), 406 (Jacobs J); Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410, 441; Brown v West (1990) 169 CLR 195,202.
137 Under the incidental power in Section 51(xxxix) if not one of the other heads of power. See Zines, above n 62, 262-273; JE Richardson, ;The Executive Power of the Commonwealth;, in Leslie Zines (ed), Commentaries on the Australian Constitution (1977) 55-56, 64-68.
138 Uther (1947) 74 CLR 508, 516.
139 Sawer, above n 1, 142; see also above n 64.
140 Wenn v Attorney-General (Vic) (1948) 77 CLR 84, 109-111 (Latham CJ), 120 (Dixon J); Botany Municipal Council v Federal Airports Corporation (1992) 175 CLR 453, 463-464; Western Australia v Commonwealth (1995) 183 CLR 373, 464-467 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ). Contra West (1937) 56 CLR 657, 684 (Evatt J); Airlines of New South Wales Pty. Ltd. v NSW (No 2) ('Second Airlines Case') (1965) 113 CLR 54, 119 (Kitto J). This reasoning has not been more broadly adopted.
141 See generally Dixon, above n 2, 14.
142 Australian Postal Commission v Dao [1985] 3 NSWLR 565, 598.
143 Ibid.
144 Residential Tenancies (1997) 190 CLR 410 (Gummow J during argument).
145 Sawer, above n 2, 588-589.
146 Sackville, above n 2, 63; Cigamatic (1962) 108 CLR 372, 388 (Taylor J, dissenting).
147 See above at n 81. If the immunity was said to be derived from the national status of the Commonwealth, the same principle would apply.
148 Queensland Electricity Commission (1985) 159 CLR 192, 217. See also Koowarta v Bjelke Peterson (1982) 153 CLR 168, 216 (Stephen J).
149 Political Broadcasts (1992) 177 CLR 106, 135.
150 Perhaps because the only argument of this nature could have been that the system of representative government operated as a check on Parliament limiting freedom of political communication, and the whole point of the Court's reasoning was that representative government could not function properly without such a freedom.
151 469 US 528 (1985) ('Garcia').
152 See generally Martha Field, 'Comment: Garcia v San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority: The Demise of a Misguided Doctrine' (1985) 99 Harvard Law Review 84.
153 Garcia 469 US 528, 546 (1985). This case overruled National League of Cities v Usery 426 US 833 (1976).
154 Ibid 552.
155 Ibid 556.
156 See Constitution of the United States, Article I, s 2, and s 3.
157 William Van Alstyne, 'Comment: The Second Death of Federalism' (1985) 83 Michigan Law Review 1709, 1724.
158 See generally David Meale, 'The History of the Federal Idea in Australian Constitutional Jurisprudence: A Reappraisal' (1992) 8 Austraian Journal of Law and Society 25.
159 Stephen Gageler, 'Foundations of Australian Federalism and the Role of Judicial Review' (1987) 17 Federal Law Review 162. See also Sackville, above n 2.
160 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129, 146-147. As to the importance of representative and responsible government in the Constitution, see Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520, 557-559; Commonwealth v Kreglinger & Fernau Ltd (1926) 37 CLR 393, 411, 413 (Isaacs J); Commonwealth v Colonial Combing and Weaving Co Ltd ('The Wooltops Case') (1922) 31 CLR 421; Gageler, above n 160, 181-190; Sawer, above n 2, 585.
161 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129, 151-152 see also South Australia v Commonwealth ('First Uniform Tax Case') (1942) 65 CLR 373, 429 (Latham CJ).
162 Sawer, above n 74, 21-22.
163 See text above at n 95.
164 It would be difficult for the Court even to evaluate the factual evidence as to such a form of protection. See generally Andrew Bell, 'Section 92, Factual Discrimination and the High Court' (1991) 20 Federal Law Review 240. It is notable that in the Garcia decision, there was extensive discussion of evidence concerning the ability of the States to protect themselves.
165 Sawer, above n 132, 90.
166 Much of the criticism of the Garcia decision has been based on the argument that the methods of protection for the State relied on bythe majority in Garcia are in fact inadequate. See, eg, John Yoo, 'The Judicial Safeguards of Federalism' (1997) 70 Southern California Law Review 1311.
167 See above n 112.
168 Cole v Whitfield (1990) 165 CLR 360 is the only case in which the Court has engaged in a comparable overhaul of an entire doctrine, although the elimination of the exceptions to the general interpretation of Section 90 in Ngo Ngo Ha v New South Wales (1997) 189 CLR 465 should also be noted.
169 Adrienne Stone, 'Lange, Levy and the Direction of the Freedom of Political Communication;(1998) 21 University of New South Wales Law Journal 117, 133.
170 See Australian Postal Commission v Dao [1985] 3 NSWLR 565, 598 (McHugh J).
171 See text at nn 133 to 135 above.
172 Cigamatic (1962) 108 CLR 372, 377.