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The Constitution and Military Justice After White V Director of Military Prosecutions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Geoffrey Kennett
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Extract

For a time, the discipline of Australian military forces provided an interesting study in the application of Imperial legislation. That feature of the system has fallen away at least since the enactment of the Defence Force Discipline Act 1982 (Cth) ('Discipline Act’). Since then, attention has been directed to the consequences of a tension between the necessary (or at least universally accepted) nature of military discipline and the values embedded in Chapter III of the Constitution.

Beginning a discussion of the Constitution and military justice in 2005, Mr Tracey observed:

In the long history of warfare it has come to be regarded as a truism that any effective and successful military force must be well disciplined. That discipline is to be maintained and enforced by commanders at all levels. It is as necessary in small matters such as punctuality and cleanliness as it is in more important ones like the protection of the human rights of non-combatants.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 36 , Issue 2 , June 2008 , pp. 231 - 250
Copyright
Copyright © 2008 The Australian National University

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Footnotes

This article is an expanded version of a paper delivered at the Public Law Weekend, Australian National University, 10 November 2007. The author thanks Benjamin O'Donnell for his comments on an advanced draft.

References

1 See the sources referred to in Richard, Tracey, ‘The Constitution and Military Justice’ (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 426Google Scholar, 426–8.

2 Ibid 426.

3 At least in a ‘small-c’ sense. Adam Smith famously made defence the first duty of government (‘According to the system of natural liberty, the sovereign has only three duties to attend to … first, the duty of protecting the society from the violence and invasion of other independent societies’: The Wealth of Nations, Book IV, Chapter IX). In Re Tracey; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518, 569–70 Brennan and Toohey JJ described the defence of the Commonwealth and the several States as a ‘constitutional objective’.

4 As in R v Bevan; Ex parte Elias (1942) 66 CLR 452 (‘Bevan’).

5 See eg Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501, 608–9 (Deane J) (‘War Crimes Act Case’).

6 For example, by Tracey, above n 1; Mitchell and Voon, ‘Justice at the Sharp End — Improving Australia’s Military Justice System’ (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 396Google Scholar; Andrew, Mitchell and Tania, Voon, ‘Defence of the Indefensible? Re-assessing the Constitutional Validity of Military Service Tribunals in Australia’ (1999) 27 Federal Law Review 499Google Scholar.

7 (2007) 231 CLR 570.

8 Bevan (1942) 66 CLR 452, 467–8 (Starke J); R v Cox; Ex parte Smith (1945) 71 CLR 1 (‘Cox’).

9 (1989) 166 CLR 518.

10 Ibid 540–1 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 574 (Brennan and Toohey JJ), 581–3 (Deane J), 598 (Gaudron J).

11 Ibid 545.

12 (1989) 166 CLR 518, 544.

13 Ibid 545.

14 In Solorio v United States 483 US 435.

15 Using terminology later adopted in Re Aird; Ex parte Alpert (2004) 220 CLR 308, 321 [36] (‘Re Aird’).

16 (1989) 166 CLR 518, 568.

17 See Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308, 321 [36].

18 Ibid 571.

19 Ibid 579.

20 Ibid 583, 585–6.

21 Ibid 586.

22 Ibid 586–7.

23 Ibid 591.

24 Ibid 600–2.

25 Ibid 589, 590.

26 Ibid 547, 575.

27 Ibid 599.

28 Ibid 602–3.

29 (1991) 172 CLR 460.

30 Ibid 474–5.

31 Ibid 484.

32 Ibid 489.

33 Ibid 493.

34 Ibid 499.

35 Ibid 494–5.

36 Ibid 498.

37 Ibid 498–9.

38 (1994) 181 CLR 18.

39 Ibid 26.

40 Ibid 26–7.

41 Ibid 31–2.

42 Ibid 39.

43 Ibid 34.

44 Ibid 34–5.

45 (2004) 220 CLR 308.

46 Despite some encouragement from the Bench: see Tracey, above n 1, 436.

47 See (2004) 220 CLR 308, 322 [39] (McHugh J), 327 [57] (Gummow J).

48 Ibid 334–6.

49 Ibid 337 [90].

50 Ibid 317–8 [27] (McHugh J), 334 [82] (Kirby J).

51 And an offence that has come to be seen as a war crime. See Transcript of Proceedings, Re Aird (High Court of Australia, Kirby J, 3 March 2004).

52 See Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308, 308–9, 314–16 (McHugh J), 357–8 (Callinan and Heydon JJ).

53 Ibid 321 [36].

54 Ibid 322 [37] (citing Tracey, ‘The Constitution and Military Justice’ – apparently the paper published in 2005 and referred to above n 1).

55 Ibid 322 [38].

56 Ibid 323–4 [40]–[44].

57 Ibid 325 [49].

58 Ibid 329–30 [65]–[68].

59 Ibid 356 [156].

60 Ibid 314 [9].

61 Ibid 312-13 [5]–[6].

62 Ibid 337 [89].

63 Ibid 337 [90].

64 Ibid 340 [98], 343 [109]–[110], 353–4 [142]–[147].

65 Ibid 339–40 [96]–[100], 341 [104], 355 [152].

66 Ibid 356 [158].

67 Ibid 359 [163]–[164], and see Kirby J at 340 [98].

68 Mitchell and Voon, ‘Defence of the Indefensible?’ above n 6, 499–500.

69 As undertaken, over the course of eighteen pages of the Commonwealth Law Reports, by Brennan and Toohey JJ in Re Tracey 166 CLR 518, 554–571.

70 See White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 579-80 [1]–[3].

71 See ibid 580 [2].

72 Ibid 630 [165].

73 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 583, discussed in White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 586–7 [17].

74 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 589; Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460, 489, discussed in White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 587 [18].

75 White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 587-9 [19]–[23].

76 As seems to be acknowledged in the limited way in which Deane J framed his propositions in Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 592 and Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460, 489.

77 White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 601 [68]–[69].

78 Ibid 601-2 [71]–[75].

79 Waterside Workers’ Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 CLR 434, 442 (Griffith CJ), 467–8 (Isaacs and Rich JJ).

80 See eg R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers’ Society of Australia (1956) 94 CLR 254, 270 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ); Chu Kheng Lim v Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs (1992) 176 CLR 1, 26–7 (Brennan, Deane and Dawson JJ), 66 (McHugh J).

81 A view favoured by Brennan and Toohey JJ in Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 564 but rejected by Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ in that case (at 540) and by Gummow J (and semble Gleeson CJ) in Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308, 311 [2], 327 [60].

82 (1989) 166 CLR 518, 540 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 572 (Brennan and Toohey JJ).

83 See (2007) 231 CLR 570, 646 [234] (Callinan J).

84 Chu Kheng Lim v Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs (1992) 176 CLR 1, 27 (Brennan, Deane and Dawson JJ), citing Waterside Workers’ Federation of Australia v J W Alexander (1918) 25 CLR 434, 444; R v Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353, 368, 383; and Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501, 536–9, 608–10, 613–14, 632, 647, 685, 705–7, 721.

85 See eg Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 536–7 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ).

86 Cox (1945) 71 CLR 1, 23 (Dixon J).

87 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 534 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 553 (Brennan and Toohey JJ), Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18, 24 (Mason CJ and Dawson J).

88 Application was made in the original jurisdiction of the High Court for orders restraining either the referral of the charges to a defence force magistrate or the convening of a court martial: see White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 570, 591 [33].

89 See White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 605-7 [91]–[95] (Kirby J).

90 The amendments were effected by the Defence Legislation Amendment Act 2006 (Cth) and came into force on 1 October 2007.

91 Senate Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee, Parliament of Australia, The Effectiveness of Australia’s Military Justice System (2005) (‘Senate Committee Report’).

92 Ibid 102 [5.95].

93 Discipline Act ss 188AA, 188AP.

94 (1942) 66 CLR 452.

95 (1942) 66 CLR 452, 468. Section 69 is referred to in the CLR report, but his Honour probably intended to refer to s 68.

96 Ibid 481.

97 (1945) 71 CLR 1.

98 Ibid 14, 27.

99 Ibid 23 (citations omitted, emphasis added).

100 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 539–40 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 565, 573 (Brennan and Toohey JJ), 581–3 (Deane J), 598 (Gaudron J); Vasiljkovic v Commonwealth (2006) 228 ALR 447, 476 [114] (Gummow and Hayne JJ); White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 585 [12]–[13] (Gleeson CJ), 502 [177] (Kirby J).

101 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 540–1 (emphasis added).

102 Ibid 573 (citing Harrison, Moore, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (2nd ed, 1910) 315–16Google Scholar).

103 Ibid 573.

104 Ibid 574.

105 Ibid 573.

106 Ibid 582–3 (citations omitted, emphasis added).

107 Ibid 598.

108 (2006) 227 CLR 614.

109 Ibid 649 [114].

110 White (2007) 231 CLR 571, 585 [12]–[13].

111 Ibid 583 [7] (citing Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, Melbourne, 10 March 1898, 2259 (Richard O’Connor)).

112 White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 583 [8].

113 Ibid 583–5 [9]–[13].

114 Ibid 586 [14].

115 Ibid 594–5 [44]–[49].

116 Ibid 595–6 [50]–[52].

117 Ibid 596–7 [51]–[55].

118 Ibid 597–8 [57].

119 Ibid 597–8 [57]–[58].

120 (1954) 90 CLR 353, 380–2.

121 And long acknowledged as such, including by Starke J in Bevan (1942) 66 CLR 452, 466.

122 White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 632 [171].

123 Ibid 621–5 [142].

124 Ibid 616–18 [123]–[132].

125 Ibid 621–5 [141]–[142].

126 Ibid 648 [238].

127 Ibid 650 [246].

128 (1942) 66 CLR 452, 466.

129 (2007) 231 CLR 570, 649 [240], [242].

130 (1989) 166 CLR 518, 598.

131 A-G (Vic) v Commonwealth (1935) 52 CLR 533, 567 (Starke J) (‘Clothing Factory Case’).

132 See Gabriёl, Moens and John, Trone, Lumb and Moens’ The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (7th ed, 2007) 256Google Scholar; Margaret, White, ‘The Executive and the Military’ (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 438Google Scholar, 442–4; P H, Lane, Lane’s Commentary on the Australian Constitution (2nd ed, 1997) 450Google Scholar; George, Winterton, Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General (1983) 23Google Scholar, 99–101.

133 Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, Melbourne, 10 March 1898, 2264 (Edmund Barton).

134 See John Quick and Robert Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (1901) 713. The debate at the Convention suggests that there was controversy in at least one Colony as to whether the Governor could exercise power as Commander-in-Chief without ministerial advice. Despite that experience, an amendment that would have added an express reference to the Executive Council was negatived (Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, Melbourne, 10 March 1898, 2249–64). It was during this debate that two future Justices of the High Court expressed an unwillingness to spell out matters of responsible government in the Constitution, for fear of what sophisticates at Westminster might think (at 2254 (Mr Barton), 2259 (Mr O’Connor)).

135 Quick and Garran, above n 134, 713.

136 J E, Richardson, ‘The Executive Power of the Commonwealth’ in Leslie, Zines (ed), Commentaries on the Australian Constitution (1977) 50Google Scholar, 72; Winterton, above n 132, 99 (citing Australian Constitutional Convention, 1978, Standing Committee ‘D’, Opinion prepared for Standing Committee D of the Australian Constitutional Convention, K W Ryan, [36]).

137 Brown v West (1990) 169 CLR 195, 202 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Dawson and Toohey JJ).

138 Winterton, above n 132, 99–100; Geoffrey, Lindell, ‘The Constitutional Authority to Deploy Australian Military Forces in the Coalition War Against Iraq’ (2003) 5 Constitutional Law and Policy Review 46Google Scholar, 47, 49; Leslie, Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (4th ed, 1997), 262Google Scholar–3, 269–70.

139 Transcript of Proceedings, White (High Court of Australia, Mr Street, Gummow J, 6 February 2007).

140 Bevan (1942) 66 CLR 452, 467–8.

141 Tracey, above n 1, 428.

142 Final Report of the Constitutional Commission (1988) 363 [5.242].

143 Ibid 359 [5.226].

144 Ibid.

145 Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 135 (Mason CJ).

146 For example, Thomas v Mowbray (2007) 237 ALR 194, 206 [17] (Gleeson CJ), 218 [66]–[67] (Gummow and Crennan JJ), 356 [595] (Callinan J) (and see Heydon J at 371 [651]; also Hayne J (dissenting) at 319–20 [463]); Forge v Australian Securities and Investments Commission (2006) 228 CLR 45, 63–4 [31]–[32] (Gleeson CJ), 82–3 [82]–[85], 84–5 [88]–[89] (Gummow, Hayne and Crennan JJ), 141–6 [256]–[267] (Heydon J).

147 In addition to R v Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353, 380–2, see Cominos v Cominos (1972) 127 CLR 588; R v Richards; Ex parte Fitzpatrick and Browne (1955) 92 CLR 157.

148 See the acceptance noted in White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 593 [40] (Gummow J).

149 But see Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 592 (Deane J).

150 Ibid 569–71 (emphasis added).

151 Ibid 570.

152 See eg White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 589 [21] (Gleeson CJ).