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Constitutional Interpretation and a Theory of Evolutionary Originalism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Jeremy Kirk
Jeremy Kirk*
Affiliation:
Sydney
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Extract

A Constitution cannot be applied without employing some theory of interpretation. An adequate theory—that is, a coherent method or approach—must address two fundamental, connected questions. In what sense are words in the text to be understood? How is ambiguity or uncertainty to be resolved? Resolution of these matters is logically prior to the determination of particular controversies.

Of necessity, judges have provided some answers to these foundational questions. But the issues have only begun to attract significant express attention in recent times, particularly in light of developments relating to implied rights. This new-found concern is not surprising, for the further one moves from considering clear and direct stipulations of particular text, the more important one's interpretational approach becomes. The theory of constitutional interpretation employed affects both one's readiness to recognise implications, and the nature and age of the sources to which reference is made in so doing.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 27 , Issue 3 , September 1999 , pp. 323 - 366
Copyright
Copyright © 1999 The Australian National University

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References

1 This article is derived from a doctoral thesis, submitted in 1998, entitled Implied Rights” in Constitutional Adjudication by the High Court of Australia since .1983. A copy is held by the Bodleian Library, Oxford. There are some unavoidable cross-references here to that broader work. I wish to thank my doctoral supervisors, Professor John Fhmis and Sir Anthony Mason, for their comments and critique. The views expressed, and any errors, are my own.

2 For example, Brest, P, The Misconceived Quest for the Original Understanding; (1980) 60 Boston ULR 204 at 204Google Scholar; Tushnet, M V, “Following the Rules Laid Down: A Critique of lnterpretivism and Neutral Principles” (1983)96 Harvard LR 781 at 786-804CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129.

4 Note Brennan, T C, Tnterpreting the Constitution: A Politico-Legal Essay (1935) at 137-144, 163-168Google Scholar.

5 Mason, A, The Interpretation of a Constitution in a Modern Liberal Democracy” in C Sampford and K Preston (eds), Interpreting Constitutions: Theories, Principles and Institutions (1996) at 14-16Google Scholar; Goldsworthy, J, Originalism in Constitutional Interpretation; (1997) 25 F L Rev 1 at 8-16Google Scholar.

6 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 162 per Higgins J; also at 142 per Knox CJ, Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ.

7 Ibid at 149. See also at 144 and 152, per Knox CJ Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ.

8 For example, Petcrswald v Bartley (1904) 1 CLR 497 at 506-509; R v Barger (1908) 6 >CLR 41 at 68 per Griffith CJ, Barton and O'Connor JJ; Federated Amalgamated Government Railway and Tramway Service Association v New South Wales Railway Traffic Employees Association (1906) 4 CLR 488 al 539 (Railway Sm,ants case); Attorney-General (NSW) v Brewery Employ ,5 s Union of New South Wales (1908) 6 CLR 469 at 501, 521, 535, 562, 604 and 610 (Union Label case).

9 For clear expositions, see R v Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission; Ex parte Association,of Professional Engineers (1959) 107 CLR 208 at 269 per Windeyer J; Street v Queensland Bar Association (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 537-538 per Dawson J.

10 For example, Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 557.

11 For example, Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 148 and 160 per Knox Cj, Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ; Attorney-General of the Commonwealth ,if Australia v R (:1957) 95 CLR 529 at 536 (Boilermakers case).

12 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 142-143, 148, 155 and 161-162; Victoria v Commonwealth (1971) 122 CLR 353 at 394 per Windeyer J (Payroll Tax case); Attorney-General (Cth); Ex rel McKinlay v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 17 per Barwick CJ; Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth [No. 21 (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 183 per Dawson J (Political Advertising case); McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 230 per McI-lugh J.

13 Peterswald (1904) 1 CLR 497.

14 For example, Tasmania v Commonwealth (1904) 1 CLR 329 at 351-356 per Barton J;Baxter v Commissioners 1:f Taxation (NSW) (1907) 4 CLR 1087 at ll07-H09 per Griffith CJ, Barton and O'Connor JJ; Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 148; Cheatle v R (1993) 177 CLR 541 at 556.

15 Tasmania v Commonwealth (1904) 1 CLR 329 at 348 per Barton J, 359-360 per O'Connor J; Baxter (1907) 4 CLR 1087 at 1104-1"105 and H12-1l13 per Griffith CJ, Barton and O'Connor JJ; Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 142 and 160.

16 For example, Railway Servants (1906) 4 CLR 488 at 534; New South vVales v Commonwealth (1990) 169 CLR 482 at 504 and 511 per Deane J (Incorporation cast'); Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 171 per Deane J. See further Part 3.3, below.

17 Note Finnis, J M, “Natural Law and Legal Reasoning” in RP George, Natural Law Theory:Contemporary Essays(1992) at 150Google Scholar.

18 Grey, T C, “Do We Have an Unwritten Constitution?” (1975) 27 Stanford LR 703 at 703CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ely, J H, Democracy and Distrust: A Theory of Judicial Review (1980) at 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 A contrary view is put by Craven, G, “Cracks in the Facade of Literalism: Is There an Engineer in the House?” (1992) 18 MULR 540 at 542Google Scholar.

20 Ibid at 542-543.

21 (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 142, 145 and 151.

22 Cf Gageler, S, “Foundations of Australian Federalism and the Role of Judicial Review”(1987) 17 F L Rev 162 at 184-190Google Scholar.

23 D'Emden v Pedder (1904) 1 CLR 91 al 114 and 118-119 per Griffith CJ.

24 For example, Zines, L, The High Court and the Constitution (4th ed 1997) ch 17Google Scholar; S Gageler, above n 22 at 175-181; J H Ely, above n 18, ch 2; M V Tushnet, above n 2.

25 Hart, H L A, The Concept of Law (revised ed 1994) ch VIIGoogle Scholar.

26 Swearing in as Chief Justice (1952) 85 CLR xi at xiv.

27 McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR 1 al 17.

28 Most notably in Mason, A, “The Role of a Constitutional Court in a Federation” (1986) 16 FL Rev 1Google Scholar. Note also McHugh, M, “The Law-making Function of the Judicial Process” (1988) 62 ALj 15 and 116Google Scholar.

29 Queensland Electricity Commission v Commonwealth (1985) 159 CLR 192 al 231 per Brem1an J; Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills Cl 992) 177 CLR 1 at 44 per Brennan J; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 181 and 186 per Dawson J; T11eophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 143-144 per Brennan J and al 193-194 per Dawson J.

30 For example, NSW v Commonwealth (1915) 20 CLR 54 at 93-94 pt'r Isaacs J; ones v Commonwealth [No. 2] (1965) 112 CLR 206 at 237 per Windeyer J; R v Trade Practices Tribunal; Ex parte St George County Council (1974) 130 CLR 533 at 542 per Barwick CJ; Uebergang u Australian TNheat Board (1980) 145 CLR 266 al 310-311 per Murphy J; R v Pearson; Ex partc Sip/ca (1983) 152 CLR 254 at 261 per Gibbs CJ, Mason and Wilson JJ; Cole v VVh.itficld (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 402-403; Smith Kline [_,,- French Laboratories (Aust) Ltd v Commonwealth (1991) 173 CLR 194 at 210-211; Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd u Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 513 at 544-545 per Brennan CJ; Abebe v Commonwealth (1999) 162 ALR 1 at 14-15 per Gleeson CJ and McHugh J, at 55 and 6'1-62 per Kirby J and at 72 and 74 per Callinan J. Note also Incorporation case (1990) 169 CLR 482 at 503, cf 511-512 per Deane J; Chratle v R (1993) 177 CLR 541 at 561-562. Cf Wilson v Minister for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs (1996) 189 CLR 1 at 9 per Brennan CJ, Dawson, Toohey, McHugh and Gummow JJ, though cf at 25 per Gaudron J, and at 32-34, 42 and 49 per Kirby J.

31 See eg, Craig, PP, “Ultra Vires and the Foundations of Judicial Review” [1998] CLJ 63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 162.

33 Ibid at 163.

34 (1999) 163 ALR 270 at 275-276 per Gleeson CJ and at 298 and 308-309 per Gummow and Hayne JJ.

35 For example, R v Smithers; Ex parte Benson (1912) 16 CLR 99 at TIS-116 per Isaacs J;Wik Peoples v Queensland (1996) 187 CLR 1 at 168-169 per Gummow J.

36 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 142.

37 Benson (1912) 16 CLR 99 at 116 per Isaacs J;James u Commonwealth (1936) 55 CLR 1 at 44; McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 17 per Baiwick CJ, at 47 per Gibbs J; Brown v R (1986) 160 CLR 171 at216-217perDawsonJ.

38 Tasmania v Commonwealth (1904) 1 CLR 329 al 333; Municipal Council of Sydney v Commonwealth (1904) 1 CLR 208 at 213-214.

39 McCamish, C, “The Use of Historical Materials in Interpreting the Commonwealth Constitution” (1996) 70 ALJ 638 at 639-647Google Scholar.

40 (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 385.

41 See Gorham's case (1852) extracted inAssam Railways and Trading Co v Commissioners of Inland Revenue [1935] AC 445 at 458;Eastman Photographic Materials Company v Comptroller-General of Patents, Designs and Trademarks [1898] AC 571 at 575 per Lord Halsbury LC; Brazil, P, “Legislative History and the Sure and True Interpretation of Statutes in General and the Constitution in Particular” (1961-4) 4 UQLJ 1 at 4-14Google Scholar.

42 Municipal Council of Sydru.'y v Commonwealth (1904) 1 CLR 208 at 213-214.

43 (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 385.

44 Dawson, D, “Intention and lhe Constitution-Whose Intent?” (1990) 6 Aust Bar Rev 93 at 93-95Google Scholar.

45 For example, Mannai Investment Co Ltd v Eagle Star Life Assurance Co Ltd [1997] AC 749 at 775 per Lord Hoffman; hrucstors Compensation Scheme Ltd v West Bromwich Building Society [1998] l All ER 98 at 114-116 per Lord Hoffman.

46 P Brazil, above n 41 at 14; Pearce, D C and Geddes, R S, Statutory Interpretation in Australia(4th ed 1996) at 50Google Scholar.

47 Dillingham Constructions Pty Ltd v Steel Mains Pty Ltd (1975) 132 CLR 323 at 332 per Murphy J;Black-Clawson Ltd v Papierwerke AG [1975] AC 591 al 622 per Viscount Dilhorne.

48 For example, Smith v Central Asbestos Co [1973] AC 518 at 529 per Lord Reid; Hayes v Commissioner of Succession Duties [1970] SASR 479 at 488-489.

49 For example, Assam Railways and Trading Co [1935] AC 445 at 458-459.

50 Cf Schoff, P, “The High Court and History: It Still Hasn't Found(ed) What It's Looking For” (1994) 5 PLR 253 at 270Google Scholar, and C McCamish, above n 39 at 649-650.

51 jumbunna Coal Mine, No Liability v Victorian Coal Miners' Association (1908) 6 CLR 309 at 367;R v Coldham; Ex parte Australian Social Welfare Union (1983) 153 CLR 297 at 314.

52 See R. v Coldham (1983) 153 CLR 297.

53 Part4.4.

54 See A Mason, above n 5 at 16-23.

55 Mason, A, Book Review (1983) 6 UNSWLJ 234 at 236-237Google Scholar.

56 Sandalow, T, “Constitutional Interpretation” (1981) 79 Michigan LR 1033 at 1061-1068CrossRefGoogle Scholar; M V Tushnet, above n 2.

57 T Sandalow, ibid; Strauss, D A, “Common Law Constih1tional Interpretation” (1996) 63 U Chicago LR 877CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Perry, M J, “The Authority of Text, Tradition, and Reason: A Theory of Constih1tional'Interpretation'” (1985) 58 Southern California LR 551Google Scholar.

59 Detmold, M J, “Australian Law: Federal Movement” (1991) 13 Syd LR 31 at 31-40Google Scholar; Detmold, M J, “Original Intentions and the Race Power” (1997) 8 PLR 244 at 244-247Google Scholar.

60 Craven, G, “After Literalism, What?” (1992) 18 MULR 874 at 874-882Google Scholar.

61 A Mason, above n 28 al 5, 23.

62 Union Label (1908) 6 CLR 469 at 608, 616.

63 Ibid at 603.

64 Ibid at 610.

65 Ibid at 614.

66 Ibid at 616.

67 Commonwealth v Colonial Combing, Spinning and V'v:aving Co Ltd (1922) 31 CLR 421 at 438-439.

68 Commonwealth u Kreglingrr fr Fernau Ltd and Bardsley (1926) 37 CLR 393 at 412.

69 Victorian Stevedoring and General Contracting Co Pty Ltd v Dignan (1931) 46 CLR 73 at 114- 115, quotingEdwards v Attorney-General for Canada [1930] AC 124 at 136.

70 (1971) 122 CLR 353 at 396.

71 Ibid at 396-397.

72 Similar statements: Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 143-144 per Brennan J, 197 per McHughJ.

73 A Mason, above n 28 at 5, 23; above n 55 at 235-237.

74 For example, in R v Federal Court of Australia; Ex parte i'\TA National Football League (1979) 143 CLR 190 Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1982) 153 CLR 168, Commonweallh v Tasmania (1983) 158 CLR 1 (Tasmanian Dam case) discussed below.

75 (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 171-174.

76 See Clark, A I, Studies in Australian Constitutional Law (1901) at 19-27Google Scholar.

77 See also Breavington v Godleman (1988) 169 CLR 41 at 132-133; incorporation case (1990) 169 CLR 482 at 504, 511.

78 See below, Part 5.5.

79 Koowarta (1982) 153 CLR 168 at 214-221 per Stephen J, at 222-231 per Mason J, at 240-242 per Murphy J, at 254-260 per Brennan J; Tasmanian Darn (1983) 158 CLR 1 at 124-130 per Mason J, at 170-177 per Brennan J, al 253-262 per Deane J.

80 Hematite Petroleum Pty Ltd v Victoria (1983) 151 CLR 599 at 617-619 per Gibbs CJ;Philip Morris Ltd v Commissioner of Business Franchises (Viet) (1989) 167 CLR 399 at 473-474 per Dawson).

81 L Zines, above n 24 at 19.

82 Ru Federal Court of Australia; Ex parle WA National Football League (1979) 143 CLR 190 al 233- 234.

83 R v Coldham (1983) 153 CLR 297 at 312.

84 Ibid at 311-314.

85 See also Re Wakim (1999) 163 ALR 270 at 285-286 per McHughJ.

86 (1988) '165 CLR 178 at 183-186 per Mason CJ, Wilson, Brennan, Deane, Dawson and Toohey JJ, at 189-192 per Gaudron J.

87 Offical Record (f the Debates of thf.' Australasian Federal Convention (1898) (the Convention Debates) at 1788 per Isaacs, at 1790-1 per Holder, at 1791 per Braddon, at 1797 per Cockburn; J Quick and R Carran ,The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Constitution (1901) at 599-600, 957-958.

88 (1999) 163 ALR 648 at 662-675 per Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ, 692-696 per GaudronJ.

89 (1993) 177 CLR 541 at 560-561.

90 McCulloch D Manjland 4 Wheat 316 (1819) at 407, 415. In Austmlia, similarly Union Label (1908) 6 CLR 469 at 612 per Higgins J;Australian National Ainuays Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1945) 71 CLR 29 at 81 per Dixon J.

91 Jumbunna (1908) 6 CLR 309 at 367-368 per O'Connor J.

92 Scalia, A, “Originalism: The Lesser Evil” (1989) 57 U of Cincinnati LR 849 at 852-853Google Scholar; note alsoBaxter (1907) 4 CLR 1087 at 1105 per Griffith CJ, Barton and O'Connor JJ,

93 G Craven, above n 19 al 546-549.

94 As to which see above, Part 1.1.

95 J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 42-43.

96 For example, s 44(iii), concerning what is “an undischarged bankrupt or insolvent”; ss 5l(vi) and (xxxii), the scope of which depend on whether there is war or peace; the scope of s 51.(xx) depends on what corporations are “foreign” (cf British corporations) and on what corporations have been or can be incorporated under State law; the scope of s Sl(xxix)depends on what Australia's external boundaries are, and what international treaties Australia is party to; certain provisions in Ch III depend on the existence from time to time of relevant institutions and/ or jurisdictions (ss 73(i), in light of s 76; s 73(ii), in light of s Tl and generally s 77(iii)).

97 There is a parallel here with Ronald Dworkin's view of the American Bill of Rights:Taking Rights Seriously (1978) at 134-136; “The Forum of Principle” (1981) 56NYULR 469 at 493-495;Freedom's Law (1996) al 7-10.

98 (1979) 143 CLR 190 at 233; see also at 208 per Barwick CJ.

99 State Superannuation Board v Trade Practices Commission (1982) 150 CLR 282 at 303-305 per Mason, Murphy and Deane JJ; Tasmanian Dam (1983) 158 CLR 1 at 155-156, 179, 240 and 293.

100 (1982) 153 CLR 168 at 218.

101 Certain provisions could also be seen as requiring such judgments: ss 51(xxiii) and (xxiiiA), in relation to how invalidity, old-age and “family allowances” are perceived; s 72(ii), concerning what constitutes “proved misbehaviour or misconduct”.

102 As opposed to merely the legitimate restriction of the freedom in light of new factual circumstances-cf below, Part 2.4.

103 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 565.

104 (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 126 per Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ.

105 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 565 and 570-571.

106 See McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 36 per McTiernan and Jacobs JJ, at 69 per Murphy J; McCinty (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 200-202 per Toohey J, at 218-222 per Gaudron J, at 286-287 per Gummow J, nole also al 166-167 and 175 per Brennan CJ;Langer v Commonwealth (1996) 186 CLR 302 at 342-343 per McHugh J. Set' further J Kirk, above n 1, ch 7.3. I previously made this type of argument, without using the “context-dependent criterion” label, in Kirk, J, “Constitutional Implications from Representative Democracy” (1995) 23 FL Reu 37 at 50 and 59-63Google Scholar.

107 J Kirk, above n l, ch 3.6.2.

108 See generally Kirk, J, “Constitutional Guarantees, Characterisation and the Concept of Proportionality” (1997) 21 MULR l at 9-21Google Scholar.

109 Ibid at 49-53.

110 Acknowledged in James v Commonwealth (1936) 55 CLR 1 at 44.

111 Implicitly acknowledged, eg, in Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR l at 51 per Brennan J; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 158-159 per Brennan J; Kruger v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 92-93 per Toohey J; Levy v Victoria (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 623-624 per McHugh J (discussing television).

112 See, eg, the overlapping aspects of international and domestic legal sovereignty considered in Sue v F-lill (1999) 163 ALR 648 at 662 and 665-671 per Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ; Joosse v ASIC (1998) 159 ALR 260 at 263-265 per Hayne J.

113 See, eg, usage in New South Wales v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 337 at 444, 452-453 per Stephen}.

114 For example, Re Residential Tenancies Tribunal of New South !Na/es and Henderson; Ex parte Defence I-lousing Authority (1997) 190 CLR 410 at 451 per Mcl-Iugh J; cf Payroll Tax (1971) 122 CLR 353 at 370-372 per Barwick CJ, al 395-396 per Windeyer J.

115 Dicey, A V, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (8th ed, reprinted 1982 by Liberty Fund) at 3-4 and 27Google Scholar.

116 Ibid at 27.

117 Ibid at 3-4 and 27-29.

118 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 137-138; A Mason, above n 5 at 30.

119 McCinty (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 230 and 237.

120 Kirnwni v Captain Cook Cruises Pty Ltd [No. 1] (1985) 159 CLR 351 at 442;Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 171.

121 Bistricic v Rokov (1976) 135 CLR 552 at 566-567;Robinson v Western Australian Museum ('1978) 138 CLR 283 at 343-344; China Ocean Shipping Co v South Australia (1979) 145 CLR 172 at 236-239.

122 (1999) 163 ALR 648 at 665-671 per Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ, at 694-695 per GaudronJ.

123 Note Nauze, J A La, The Making of the Australian Conslilulion (1972) at 254Google Scholar.

124 Dixon, O, “The Law and the Constitution” (1935) 51 LQR 590 at 597Google Scholar; Payroll Tax (1971) 122 CLR 353 at 370-371 per Barwick CJ; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 180-181 per Dawson J; Lumb, R D, “Fundamental Law and the Processes of Constitutional Change in Australia” (1978) 9 F L Rev 148 at 154Google Scholar; Lindell, G J, “Why is Australia's Constitution Binding?-The Reasons in 1900 and Now, and the Effect of Independence” (1986) 16 FL Rev 29 at 30-33Google Scholar.

125 H L A Hart, above n 25 at 66-78.

126 Hart, ibid at 120-121; Finnis, J M, “Revolutions and Continuity of Law” in AW B Simpson (ed), Oxford Essays in Jurispmdence (Second Series) (1973) at 69-76Google Scholar.

127 For related views see K Wheare, The Constitutional StruchJre of the Commonwealth (1960) at 108-111; RD Lumb, above n 124 at 154-158; Byers, M H, “Correspondence-Conventions Associated with the Commonwealth Constitution” (l982) 56 ALJ 316 at 318Google Scholar; Kirmani (1985) 159 CLR 351 at 442 per Deane J.

128 Finn, PD, “A Sovereign People, A Public Trust” in PD Finn (ed), Essays on Law and Government- Volume .1: Principles and Values (1995) at 14Google Scholar.

129 Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 484, 486;Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 70 and 72; also Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 171 and 180 per Deane J.

130 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 138; A Mason, above n 5 at 30.

131 PD Finn, above n 128 at 4.

132 For example H LA Hart, above n 25 at 76-77; Zines, L, “We the People” in M Coper and G Williams (eds), Power, Parliament and the People (1996) at 95Google Scholar.

133 The Constitution was put to the people twice. Four colonies voted on it in 1898, when it was passed by all, but only by a margin deemed insufficient in New South Wales. After some modifications it was passed again by five colonies in 1899 and by the sixth, Western Australia, in 1900.

134 Bistricic v Rokov (1976) 135 CLR 552 at 566;Breavington v Godlcman (1988) 169 CLR 41 at 123 per Deane J.

135 PD Finn, above n 128 at 4.

136 Cf J M Filmis, above n 126 at 63-65; G J Lindell, above n 124 at 37.

137 See below, Part 4.1.

138 See above, Part l .l.

139 Incorporation case (1990) 169 CLR 482 at 504 and also at 511;Breavington 'I' Godleman CJ 1988) 169 CLR 41 at 132-133; Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 171.

140 Municipal Council of Sydney v Commonwealth (1904) 1 CLR 208 at 213 per O'Connor J;Attorney-General (Viet); Ex rel Black v Commonwealth (1981) 146 CLR 559 at 577-578 per Barwick CJ.

141 L F Crisp, Australian National Gm,ernment (4th ed 1978) at 22-29; RD Lumb and GA Moens,The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia: Annotated (1995) at 5-6.

142 Convention Debates 1898, above n 87 at 687 per Isaacs, at 1792 per Trenwith.

143 Ibid at 654, 656, 658, 663 and 1773 per Higgins; at 1773 per Wise; at 1776 per Symon.

144 See further J Kirk, above n l, ch 3.5.2.

145 G J Lindell, above n 124 at 44-46.

146 Payroll Tax (1971) 122 CLR 353 at 394 per Windeyer J.

147 Cooper Brookes (Wollongong) Pty Ltd v FCT (1981) '147 CLR 297 at 320 per Mason and WilsonJJ.

148 McGinty (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 230 per McHugh J; G J Lindell, above n 124 at 44; see also Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 148.

149 Raz, J, “Intention in Interpretation” in R George (ed), The Autonomy of La,u: Essays on Legal Positivism (1996) at 268-269Google Scholar; also Villar, G Del, Shaking the Dead Hand of the Past: The Role of Originalism in Australian Constitutional Interpretation (1996, honours research thesis submitted to Australian National University) at 18Google Scholar.

150 Polites v Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60.

151 McCulloch v Maryland 4 Wheal 316 (1819) al 407.

152 Discussed in Baxter (1907) 4 CLR 1087 at 1109-1112 per Griffith CJ, Barton and O'Connor JJ.

153 J Raz, above n 149 at 280-281.

154 Accepted, to some extent, by Deane Jin Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 171.

155 University of Wollongong v Metwally (1984) 158 CLR 447 at 477.

156 A Mason, above n 5 at 30.

157 See, eg, Political Aduertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 137-138 per Mason CJ; Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 70, 72 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 180 per Deane J.

158 Discussed by Mason, K, “Citizenship” in C Saunders (ed), Courts of Final Jurisdiction (1996)Google Scholar.

159 J Quick and R Carran, above n 87 at 954-959.

160 See Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1988) 165 CLR 178 at 183-185 per Mason CJ, Wilson, Brennan, Deane, Dawson and Toohey JJ, at 192-195 per Gaudron J.

161 Discussed by L Zines, above n 132 at 101.

162 Air Caledonie International v Commonwealth (1985) 165 CLR 462 at 470; Nolan (1988) 165 CLR 178 at 183-185, at 192--195; Chu Kheng Lim,, Minister jtJr Immigration (1992) 176 CLR 1 at 53-54, 57.

163 For related problems with such social contract models see J Kirk, above n 106 at 48; J Kirk, above n 1, ch 3.5.2.

164 For example, Bork, R H, “Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems” (1971) 47 Indiana LJ 1 at 3-4Google Scholar; M J Perry, above n 58 at 597-599; Meese, E III, “Toward a Jurisprudence of Original Intent” (1988) 11 Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 5 at 8-10Google Scholar; Kay, R S, “Adherence lo the Original Intentions in Constitutional Adjudication: Three Objections and Responses” (1988) 82 Northwestern ULR 226 at 231-234Google Scholar, 246-247 and 262-263;G Craven, above n 60 at 894; J Raz, above n 149.

165 Chronicled in Sipka (1983) 152 CLR 254 at 269; McGinty (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 242-243.

166 L F Crisp, above n 141 at 12.

167 P Brest, above n 2 at 225-226.

168 DA Strauss, above n 57 at 934, 904-905 and 928; also T Sandalow, above n 56 at 1068-1069.

169 J Kirk, above n l, ch 3.5.2.

170 Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 171 per Deane J.

171 For example Re Wakim (1999) 163 ALR 270 at 283 per McHugh J.

172 H L A Hart, above n 25 at 60-61, 77-78 and 114.

173 J Raz, above n '149 at 277-279.

174 Part 3.2.

175 RH Bork, above n 164 at 3-10; Bork, R H, “The Constitution, Original Intent, and Economic Rights” (1986) 23 San Diego LR 823 at 825Google Scholar; M J Perry, above n 58 at 598; E Meese, above n 164 at 6; A Scalia, above n 92 at 862-863.

176 For example, Donaghue, S, “The Clamour of Silent Constitutional Principles” (1996) 24 F L Rev 133 at 145-150Google Scholar.

177 Above n 57 at 907-916.

178 Ibid at 920-923.

179 Above n 58 at 564-565 and 591.

180 Above n 59 at 40.

181 Ibid at 43.

182 Above n 59 at 245-246.

183 (1992) 174 CLR 455.

184 Detmold, M J, “The New Constitutional Law” (1994) 16 Syd LR 228 at 228-229 and 248-249Google Scholar.

185 J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 38; Sue o Hill (1999) 163 ALR 648 at 730-1 per Callinan J.

186 D A Strauss, above n 57 at 920-923.

187 J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 38-39.

188 T Sandalow, above n 56 at 1054-1055, 1069-1070; DA Strauss, above n 57.

189 P Brest, above n 2 at 231-234; T Sandalow, above n 56 at 1061-1068; M V Tushnet, above n 2; M J Perry, above n 58 at 566; Mason, above n 5 at 15-16; cf, eg, A Scalia, above n 92 at 863.

190 See eg Schauer, F, “Easy Cases” (1985) 58 Southern Cal LR 399 at 416-430Google Scholar; RS Kay, above n 164 at 236-243; H LA Hart, above n 25 ch VII.

191 For example, RH Bork, above n 164 at 3-10; E Meese, above n 164.

192 Part 1.1.

193 Harmelin v Michigan 501 US 957 (1991) at 976 fn 6 Goined by Rehnquist CJ); see also Home Building and Loan Association 11 Blaisdell, 290 US 398 (1933) at 453 per Sutherland J dissenting (for four judges); RS Kay, above n 164 at 243-245 and 257-259.

194 See Cole v Whifield (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 385-392.

195 J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 20-21, 29; G Craven, above n 60 at 896-897; also G Del Villar, above n 149 at 27-29.

196 Goldsworthy, J, “Implications in Language, Law and the Constitution” in G J Lindell (ed),Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law (1994) at 156Google Scholar.

197 Ibid at 162--163.

198 J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 5 fn 29, 16.

199 Ibid at 20; see also G Craven, above n 60 at 895-896.

200 RS Kay, above n 164 at 288, generally 287-292.

201 RH Bork, above n 175 at 824-825; RS Kay, above n 164 at 262.

202 A Scalia, above n 92 at 854.

203 J Kirk, above n 1, ch 3.1.

204 Convention Debates 1898, above n 87 at 665-656, 669, 672-673, 686, 687, 178-1-1784, 1788, 1791-1792, 1797 and 1801 (though cf 673,691); see also J M Williams, “Race, Citizenship and Lhe Formation of the Australian Constitution: Andrew Inglis Clark and Lhe '14th Amendment"' (1996) 42 Aus Jo of Politics and History 10.

205 Part 2.

206 For example, in relation to s 5l(xix), Nolan (1988) 165 CLR 178; in relation to s 5l(xxix), Koowarta (1982) 153 CLR 168 and Tasmanian Dam (1983) 158 CLR 1 as to implementing treaties; as to regulating the legal relationship with Britain, see Kirmani (1985) 159 CLR 35·1 at 380-382 per Mason J, 385 per Murphy J, 435-440 per Deane J, also at 371 per Gibbs CJ; note also Polyukhouich u Commonwf.'alth (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 602-603 per Deane J.

207 Mason, A, “Trends in Constitutional Interpretation” (1995) 18 UNSWLJ 237 at 242-243Google Scholar.

208 J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 32.

209 See ss 2-5.

210 Edwards v Attorney-General for Canada [1930] AC 124 at 136.

211 60 US (19 How.) 393, 15 L Ed 69-1 (1857) at 7crt-706 (L Ed).

212 (1991) 173 CLR 194 al 210-211.

213 As is arguably implied in some dicta: Baxter (1907) 4 CLR 1087 at 1103 per Griffith CJ , Barton and O'C01mor JJ; Western Australia v Commonwealth (1975) 134 CLR 201 at 278 per Jacobs J; New South Wales v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 337 at 364-365 per Barwick CJ; Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 70-71 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 137 per Mason CJ; Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 558; Sue v Hill (1999)163 ALR 648 at 668 per Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ. See also G Winterton, Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General (1983) at 124-127; J Kirk, above n 106 at 63- 64; L Zines, above n 24 at 250; cf G J Lindell, Book Review (1983) 6 UNSWLJ 261 at 266-267.

214 For example, Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 151.

215 Sykes v Cleary (1992) 176 CLR 77 at 105-108, Tl2-114, 127-128, 131-132 and 135-139; also nowSue v Hill (1999) 163 ALR 648.

216 Law Society of Upper Canada v Skapinker [1984] 1 SCR 357 at 366 per Estey J for the Court.

217 Above n 92 at 862; see also Home Building and Loan Association I' Blaisdell 290 US 398 (1933) at 452 per Sutherland J (dissenting), quoting Cooley, Constitutional Limitations (8th ed) 124.

218 Lochner v New York 198 US 45 (1905); see further J Kirk 1998, above n 1, Chapter 3.6.3.

219 J Kirk 1995, above n 106 at 70.

220 (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 230.

221 Above n 164 at 285; also R Dworkin 1981, above n 97 at 473-475 and 498.

222 Even Scalia concedes the temptation: above n 92 at 864.

223 For example, RS Kay, above n 164 at 230-236; J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 8-12.

224 RS Kay, ibid at 245; J Raz, above n 149 at 263-264; P Brest, above n 2 at 212-213.

225 RS Kay, ibid at 247-271.

226 Municipal Council 1f Sydney v Commonwealth (1904) 1 CLR 208 at 213 per Barton J; McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 47 per Gibbs J.

227 R Dworkin 1981, above n 97 at 483-485.

228 Convention Debates 1898, above n 87 at 1898, 1799.

229 Cole v INhitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 385-392.

230 Above n 164 at 250.

231 Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 168;Breavington v Godleman (1988) 169 CLR 41 at 133.

232 P Brazil, above n 41 at 21.

233 Zines, L, “Characterisation of Commonwealth Laws” in HP Lee and G Winterton (eds), Australian Constitutional Perspectives (1992) at 38Google Scholar; Lindell, G J, “Recent Developments in the Judicial Interpretation of the Australian Constitution” in G J Lindell (ed), Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law (1994) at 45Google Scholar.

234 Wheeler, F, “Original Intent and the Doctrine of the Separation of Powers in Australia” (1996) 7 PLR 96 at 99-104Google Scholar.

235 A Mason, above n 207 at 246.

236 See above Part 1.2.

237 Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth), s 35(2) and Federal Court of Australia Act 1976 (Cth), s 33(3).

238 Smith Kline [i French Lahoratories Cl991) 173 CLR -194 at 210-211.

239 Ibid at 208-209.

240 For t'xample, Cole D Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 385-392;Port MacDonnel/ Professional Fishermen's Association Inc v South Australia (1989) 168 CLR 340 at 376-378.

241 For example, arguably Incorporation case (1990) 169 CLR 482 at 501-502.

242 Port MacDonnell Professional Fishermen's Association (1989) 168 CLR 340 at 376-378, citing one framer;incorporation case, ibid, citing one framer and the draft Bills.

243 Compare Kennett, G, “Constitutional Interpretation in the Corporations Case” (1990) 19 FL Reu 223 at 241-242Google Scholar.

244 For example, arguably Nile v Wood (1988) 167 CLR 133 at 140 per Brennan, Deane and Toohey JJ.

245 J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 20; see also A Marmor, Interpretation and Lt-gal Theory (1992) at 165-172.

246 See also R Dworkin 1981, above n 97 at 488-497; cf A Marmor, ibid at 166 fn 13.

247 P Brest, above n 2 al 217.

248 Contra A Marmor, above n 245 at 171-172.

249 R Dworkin 1981, above n 97 at 490; T Sandalow, above n 56 at 1036.

250 Above n 44 at 95.

251 McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 17.

252 Attorney General v Sil/em (1863) 2 H&C 431 at 537; 159 ER 178 at 225.

253 P Brest, above n 2 at 222; P Schoff, above n 50 at 272; cf A Scalia, above n 92 at 862-863.

254 R Dworkin 1981, above n 97 at 495-497.

255 Craven, Contra G, “Reflections on Judicial Activism: More in Sorrow than in Anger” in Samuel Griffith Society, Upholding the Australian Constitution, Volume 9 (1997) at 198Google Scholar.

256 See, eg, Convention Debates 1898, above n 87 at 283 and 1.789 per Isaacs, at 1734-1735 per Higgins, at 672 per O'Connor (with whom Barton agreed at 674); Deakin in 1902, quoted in L F Crisp, above n 141 at 58; Moore, W Harrison, The Constitution lf the Commonwealth of Australia (1902) at 331Google Scholar.

257 Quoted in L F Crisp, above n 141 at 58.

258 J Goldsworthy, above n 5 at 19.

259 Part 2.

260 Above n 44 at 97.

261 J Goldsworthy, above n 196 at 154 and 157-161; J Kirk, above n 1, ch 5.3.1.

262 Union Label (1908) 6 CLR 469 at 611.

263 For example, Sunstein, CR, “Beyond the Republican Revival” (1988) 97 Yale LJ 1539CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williams, J M, “With Eyes Open': Andrew Inglis Clark and Our Republican Tradition” (1995) 23 FL Rei, 149Google Scholar.

264 J H Ely, above n 18.

265 Similar doubts are expressed by R Posner, Overcoming Law (1995) at 179, 186-187 and 191- 192.

266 An issue the High Court has often considered: see above n 30.

267 J Kirk, above n 1, chs 3, 5.2.2-3.

268 Ibid, ch 3.

269 Ibid, ch 1.2.1.

270 Ibid, ch 5.2.3.

271 Dworkin 1978, above n 97, 134-137.

272 Quoted in L F Crisp, above n 141 al 58.

273 For example, CIC Insurance Ltd u Bankstown Football Club Ltd Cl (1997) 187 CLR 384 at 412. See also Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth), s 15AB.

274 Note Assam Railways and Trading Co [1935] AC 445 at 458; Smith v Central Asbestos Co ['1973] AC 518 at 529 per Lord Reid; Black-Clawson Ltd,, Papierwerke AC [1975] AC 591 at 614, 629and 638.

275 Above, Part 4.4.

276 Contra Cole v iVhitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 385.

277 [1930] AC 124 at 136.

278 For example, Attorney-General for Ontario v Attorney-General for Canada l 1947] AC 127 at 153- 154; Attorney-General cf Quebec v Blaikie [1979] 2 SCR 1016 at 1028-1030; Re Residential Tenancies Act [1981] 1 SCR 714 al 723, 732-736.

279 Re British Columbia Motor Vehicle Act [1985] 2 SCR 486 at 509 per Lamer J; also Law Society of Upper Canada v Skapinker [1984] 1 SCR 357 at 366 per Estey J for the Court.

280 Law Society of Upper Canada, ibid.

281 Missouri v Holland, 252 US 416 (1920) at 433 per Holmes J for the Court.

282 Home Building S-Loan Association v Blaisdell 290 US 398 (1933) at 428.

283 Ibid at 443-444.

284 L Zines, above n 233 at 37.

285 Gould v Brown (l998) 193 CLR 346 at 476-477; Kartinyeri” Commomvealth (1998) 152 ALR 540 at 584-585; Re Wakim (1999) 163 ALR 270 at 323-324.

286 Kartinyeri,ibid at 584.

287 (1999) 162 ALR lat 59 and 55; though note his use of the term “rnnstitutional purpose” at 61.

288 See Re Wakim (1999) 163 ALR 270 at 323-324.

289 (1999) 163 ALR 648 at 721.

290 Newcrest Mining (1997) 190 CLR 513 at 657-658;Kartinyeri (1998) 152 ALR 540 at 598-599.

291 Ibid.

292 Re Wakim (1999) 163 ALR 270 at 285-286.

293 Compare Union Label (1908) 6 CLR 469.

294 Note L Zines, above n 24 at 19, discussing Davis v Commonwealth (1988) 166 CLR 79 at 96 per Mason CJ, Deane and Gaudron JJ, holding that marks attaching to services are covered.

295 As the Court has held: R v Federal Court of Australia; Ex parte WA National Football League Cl979) 143 CLR '190; Tasmanian Dam (1983) '158 CLR 1.

296 Compare R v Coldham (1983) 153 CLR 297.

297 Compare Re Amalgamated Metal vVorkers Union; Ex parte Shell Co of Australia Ltd (1992) 174 CLR 345, holding that the form of a superannuation scheme was covered.

298 In Re Wakim (1999) '163 ALR 270, at 286, McHugh J implied some sympathy for such a view in relation to same sex marriages.

299 An issue not yet resolved: see Kartinyeri (1998) 152 ALR 540. This type of interpretation might be supportable in any case: see further Williams, J M and Bradsen, J, “The Perils of Inclusion: The Constitution and the Race Power” (1997) 19 Adel LR 95Google Scholar.