Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-lrblm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-30T23:21:48.472Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Defence of the Indefensible? Reassessing the Constitutional Validity of Military Service Tribunals in Australia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Andrew D Mitchell  and
Tania Voon
Andrew D Mitchell
Affiliation:
Arthur Robinson & Hedderwicks; postgraduate student, University of Melbourne
Tania Voon
Affiliation:
Mallesons Stephen Jaques; postgraduate student, University of Melbourne
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Soldiers must be treated in the first instance with humanity but kept under control by means of iron discipline.

In the past fifty years the High Court of Australia has scrutinised the constitutional validity of military service tribunals on several occasions. Each time, the validity of service tribunals to conduct trials and impose punishment in relation to the particular offence has been upheld on the basis that it derives from a proper exercise by the legislature of its power under s 51(vi) of the Constitution. On no occasion has this been considered by the Court as a whole to involve a breach of the separation of powers doctrine. However, while it is generally accepted that service tribunals exercise what would ordinarily be seen as falling within the definition of “judicial power”, there has been no unifying and satisfactory explanation as to why this does not breach the separation of powers doctrine.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 27 , Issue 3 , September 1999 , pp. 499 - 525
Copyright
Copyright © 1999 The Australian National University

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

We would like to thank Dr James Thomson and Mr John Waugh for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article. The views expressed herein, and any errors or omissions, are ours.

References

1 S Tzu, The Art of War (trans L Giles, 1988) 98 cited in Kronenburg, E, Lie, E Wong, C, “Civil Jurisdiction in the Military Courts: An Unnecessary Overlap? An Evaluation of Section 112 of the Singapore Armed Forces Act” (1993) 14 Singapore LR 320 at 324Google Scholar.

2 Constitution, s Tl.

3 Re Tyler; Ex partc Foley (1994) 181 CLR 18.

4 Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne and CallinanJJ.

5 Re Tracey; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 602-603 per GaudronJ; Re Nolan; Ex partc Young (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 498 per Gaudron J, at 499 per McHugh J; Re Tyler; Ex partc Foley (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 34-35 per GaudronJ, at 38-39 per McHughJ. ln Re Tyler McHugh J nevertheless decided to follow the decisions in the earlier cases on the basis of precedent. It is unclear whether his Honour would feel bound to follow those decisions today. See below, Part V under the heading “Approaches of the High Court”.

6 (1995) 183 CLR 245.

7 Stenhouse v Coleman (1945) 69 CLR 457 at 471. DP Derham, “The Defence Power” in R Else-Mitchell (ed), Essays on the Australian Constitution (2nd ed 1961) at 157 and 160-161; Howard, C, Australian Federal Constitutional Law (3rd ed 1985) at 476-477Google Scholar; Kirk, J, “Constitutional Guarantees, Characterisation and Proportionality” (1997) 21 MULR 1 at 22- 23Google Scholar.

8 Andrews v Howell (1941) 65 CLR 255 at 278; Wynes, W, Legislative, Executive and Judicial Powers in Australia (3rd ed 1962) at 201-202Google Scholar and 279-280.

9 Lane, P H, Lane's Commentary on the Australian Constitution (2nd ed 1997) at 191Google Scholar.

10 See, eg, Farcy 71 Buruett (1916) 21 CLR 433 al 440-441, 449 and 452-453; South Australia v n Commonwealth (1942) 65 CLR 373. DP Derham, above n 7 at 157 and 162; see generally Sawer, G, “The Defence Power of the Commonwealth in Time of War” (1946) 20 ALJ 295Google Scholar and “Defence Power of the Commonwealth in Time of Peace” (1954) 6 Res Judicatae 214.

11 R v Bevan; Ex parte Elias and Gordon (1942) 66 CLR 452 at 479; Re Tracey; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 538, 564, 574 and 592.

12 Re Tracey; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 544.

13 DFDA, s 18.

14 DFDA, s 24.

15 DFDA, s27.

16 DFDA, ss 43 and 45.

17 DFDA, s 59.

18 DFDA, s 61: “A person, being a defence member or a defence civilian, is guilty of an offence if: (a) the person does or omits to do, in the Jervis Bay Territory, an act or thing the doing or omission of which is a Territory offence; (b) the person does or omits to do, in a public place outside the Jervis Bay Territory, an act or thing the doing or omission of which, if it took place in a public place in the Jervis Bay Territory, would be a Territory offence; or (c) the person does or omits to do (whether in a public place or not) outside the Jervis Bay Territory an act or thing the doing or omission of which, if it took place (whether in a public place or not) in the Jervis Bay Territory, would be a Territory offence.” Territory offence is defined ins 3 to mean: “(a) an offence against a law of the Commonwealth in force in the Jervis Bay Territory other than this Act or the regulations; (b) an offence punishable under the Crimes Act 1900 of the Australian Capital Territory, in its application to the Jervis Bay Territory, as amended or affected by Ordinances in force in that Territory; or (c) an offence against the Police Offences Act 1930 of the Australian Capital Territory, in its application to the Jervis Bay Territory, as amended or affected by Ordinances from time to time in force in the Jervis Bay Territory”. The Jervis Bay Territory is an internal, non-self-governing Territory of the Commonwealth of Australia. It is generally subject to the law of the Australian Capital Territory.

19 Commonwealth Parliament Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Military justice Procedures in the Australian Defence Force (1999) at 32; DFDA, s 68.

20 Ho, R, “A World That Has Walls: A Charter Analysis of Military Tribunals” (1996) 54 University of Toronto Faculty of Law Review 149 at 151Google Scholar. See also Conwell, W H, “Courts-martial in Australia” (1940) 14 ALJ 210 at 210Google Scholar: “A court-martial is a court established and authorised by military law to try offences committed or alleged to have been committed by persons subject to military law”.

21 DFDA, ss 109-lll.

22 DFDA, Part VII, Div 1.

23 DFDA, s 114.

24 DFDA, s 196.

25 DFDA, s 134(1).

26 DFDA, s 134(4).

27 DFDA, ss 127 and 129.

28 Thompson, S, “An Officer and a Gentlemen” [1982] Law Society Journal 306 at 307Google Scholar.

29 DFDA, ss 150-153.

30 Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth), Sch l(o). Groves, M, “The Use of Criminal Law Principles in Military Discipline: Chief lifGeneral Staff v Stuart (1995) 133 ALR 513” (1997) 23 Monash ULR 456 at 460Google Scholar.

31 Appeals Act, s 20.

32 Appeals Act, s 51.

33 Appeals Act, s 52.

34 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 547-548 and 574-576.

35 McWaters v Day (1989) 168 CLR 289.

36 Re Nolan; Ex parte Young (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 493-494 and at 499 per Gaudron J.

37 “Major crimes like rape, murder, theft and things of that nature are always referred to the civilian courts and, wherever possible, if there is a way of referring a matter to the civilian courts the defence department does so”: Sen Deb 1999, No 8 at 5719.

38 Defence Instruction (General) PERS 45-1, Jurisdiction Under the DFDA Guidance for Military Commanders, referred to in Committee, above n 19 at 25.

39 Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade (Defence Subcommittee), Reference: Military Justice Procedures, Official Hansard Report, 19 June 1998 at 290; cf Committee, above n 19 at 138-139.

40 Hirschhorn, J, “The Separate Community: Military Uniqueness and Servicemen's Constih1tional Rights” (1984) 62 North Carolina LR 177 at 178Google Scholar.

41 Cf Walker, J, “Military Justice: From Oxymoron to Aspiration” (1994) 32 Osgoode Hall LJ 1 at 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 Committee, above n 19 at 7; E Kronenburg et al, above n-1 at 333 citing Griffith, J A G, “Justice and the Anny” (1947) 10 MLR 292 at 297CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 A Heard, “Military Law and the Charter cif Rights” (1987-1988) n Dalhousie LJ 514 at 525.

44 Ackland, R, “Military Justice and Article Ill” (1990) 103 Harvard LR 1909 at 1920-1921Google Scholar; E Kronenburg et al, above n 1 at 336-338.

45 (1942) 66 CLR 452.

46 (1945) 71 CLR 1.

47 (1989) 166 CLR 518.

48 (1991) 172 CLR 460.

49 (1994) 181 CLR 18.

50 On 25 November 1997 (Sen Deb 1997, No 20 at 9361) and 10 March 1999 (Sen Deb 1999, No 2 at 2623).

51 Committee, above n 19 at 3 and 5.

52 H Reps Deb 1999, No 8 at 5375; Sen Deb 1999, No 8 at 5719.

53 Committee, above n 19 at 140. See text at n 36 above.

54 Ibid at 139.

55 Ibid at 149.

56 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 19 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171, 6 ILM 368 (entered into force 23 March 1976).

57 Australia signed the ICCPR on 18 December 1972 and ratified the ICCPR (with reservations and declarations) on 13 August 1980.

58 Committee, above n 19 at 118; Brownlie, I, Principles of Public International Law (5th ed 1998) at 34-36Google Scholar; Malanczuk, P, Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law (7th ed 1997) at 64Google Scholar.

59 Abadee, A R, A Study into Judicial System under the Defence Force Discipline Act (1997) at 37Google Scholar, cited above n 19 at 120.

60 Committee, above n 19 at 203-211.

61 A R Abadee, above n 59, cited ibid at 203.

62 AR Abadee, ibid, recommendation 19, cited in Committee, above n 19 at 206.

63 AR Abadee, ibid, recommendation 44, cited in Committee, above n 19 at 210.

64 Committee, above n 19 al 136.

65 Findlay v United Kingdom [1997] Eur Ct HR 263, cited in Committee, above n 19 at 117.

66 See generally Hanks, P J, Constitutional Law in Australia (2nd ed 1996) at 474-483Google Scholar; Zines, L, The High Court and tlze Constit-ution (4th, ed 1997) at :171-218Google Scholar; C Howard, above n 7 al 248-28:I; PH Lane, above n 9 at 453-462; Lumb, R D, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia Annotated (4th ed 1986) at 243-252Google Scholar; Walker, K, “Disputed Returns and Parliamentaiy Qualifications: Is the High Court's Jurisdiction Constitutional?” (1997) 20 UNSWLJ 257 at 261-263Google Scholar.

67 Constitution, s 71.

68 This doctrine has been expounded at length elsewhere. See, eg, C Howard, above n 7 at ch 4; Winterton, G, “The Separation of Judicial Power as an Implied Bill of Rights” in G Lindell (ed),Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law (1994) at 185Google Scholar; Wheeler, F, “Original Intent and the Doctrine of the Separation of Powers in Australia” (1996) 7 PLR 96Google Scholar.

69 (1909) 8 CLR 330.

70 C Howard, above n 7 at 239; Huddart Parker (1909) 8 CLR 330 at 355.

71 New South wales v Commonwealth (19:15) 20 CLR 54 at 64, 88, 89-90 and al :108; Waterside Workt'rs' Federation of Australia v TW Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 442; Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153; R v Richards; ex parte Fitzpatrick and Brown (1955) 92 CLR :157 at 165 (cited in Justice Kirby, M, “Judicial Independence in Australia Reaches a Moment of Truth” (1990) 13 UNSWLJ 187 at 207)Google Scholar.

72 (1956) 94 CLR 254 (High Court); Attorney-General (Commonwealth) v Queen (1957) 95 CLR 529 (Privy Council).

73 R I' Dauison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 381 per Kitto, J; R v Quinn; Ex parte Consolidated Foods Corporation (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11Google Scholar; Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 580 per Deane J. See generally Wheeler, F, “The Doctrine of Separation of Powers and Constitutionally Entrenched Due Process in Australia” (1997) 23 Monash Uni1iersity LR 248Google Scholar; G Winterton, above n 68 at 185.

74 AR Abadee, above n 59 at 37, cited in Committee, above n 19 at 120; L Zines, above n 66 at 204-206; P J Hanks, above n 66 at 551-552; J Walker, above n 41 at 2.

75 See the discussion in Henderson, E, “Trials, Tribunals and Tribulations: Brandy v Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission” (1995) 17 Syd LR 581 at 585-586Google Scholar. Finnis, J argued in “The Separation of Powers in the Australian Constitution” (1968) 3 Adel LR 159Google Scholar that the doctrine was never intended by the founders of the Constitution.

76 R v Toske; Ex parte Australian Building Constmction Employees and Builders' Labourers' Federation (1974) BO CLR 87 at 90 per Barwick CJ and at 102 per Mason J; Hilton v Wells (1985) 157 CLR 57 at 67 per Gibbs CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ, and at 86 per Mason and Deane JJ.

77 Lane, P H, “The Decline of the Boilermakers Separation of Powers Doctrine” (1981) 55 ALJ 6 at 11-12Google Scholar.

78 Ibid. See, eg, R v Trade Practices Tribunal; Ex parte Tasmanian Breweries Pty Ltd Cl970) 123 CLR361.

79 PH Lane, above n 77 at 6, 13 and 14.

80 (1995) 183 CLR 245.

81 E Henderson, above n 75 at 581.

82 See generally Treyde, R, “Enforcing Human Rights: The Response to Brandy” (1996) 7 PLR 15Google Scholar; ibid at 588-590.

83 Johnston, P, “Recent Developments Concerning Tribunals in Australia” (1996) 24 FL Rev 323 at 332-336Google Scholar.

84 See generally Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51; Wilson v Minister for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs (1996) 189 CLR 1; Fourmile v Selpam Pty Ltd (1997) 80 FCR 151; Wilkinson,, Clerical Administrative and Related Employees Superannuation Ply Ltd (1998) 79 FCR 469; Re Wakim; Ex parte McNally (1999) 163 ALR 270. F Wheeler, above n 68; cf J de Meyrick, “Whatever Happened to Boilermakers?” Part I and Part 11 (1995) 69 ALJ 106 and 189.

85 P J Hanks, above n 66 at 474; R v Trade Practices Tribunal; Ex parte Tasmanian Breweries Ply Ltd (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 394; W Wynes, above n 8 at 556; R v Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 366.

86 (1909) 8 CLR 330 at 357.

87 P J Hanks, above n 66 at 475.

88 Re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257 at 267.

89 Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 CLR 434. P J Hanks, above n 66 at 477-478.

90 L Zines, above n 66 at 171. See also British Imperial Oil Co Ltd v Federal Commission cf Taxation (1925) 35 CLR 422; Shell Co of Australia Ltd v Federal Commission of Taxation (1930) 44 CLR 530; Rola Co (Australia) Pty Ltd v Commonwf.'alth (1945) 69 CLR 185 cited in P J Hanks, above n 66 at 478-480. The reference to “binding and authoritative” by Griffith CJ refers lo a conclusive determination of those rights: Shell v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1930) 44 CLR 530.

91 Queen Victoria Hospital v Thornton (1953) 87 CLR 144; R v Spicer; Ex parte Australian Builders Labourers' Federation (l957) 100 CLR 277.

92 See, eg, Rola Co (Australia) Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1944) 69 CLR 185 at 198-199.

93 R v Heagarty; Ex parle The Corporation of the City of Salisbury (1981) 147 CLR 617 al 627; Cominos u Caminos (1972) 127 CLR 588 at 605 and 608; R v Dauison (1954) 90 CLR 353.

94 See the discussion in Brown, R A, “The Constitutionality of Service Tribunals under the Defence Force Discipline Act at 982” (1985) 59 ALJ 319 at 323-324Google Scholar.

95 Squibb, G, The High Court of Chiualry (1959) at 3Google Scholar.

96 “Lawes and Ordinances of Warre” (1639) printed in Clode, C, The Military Forces of the Crown (1869) vol l at 438-439Google Scholar; “Laws and Ordinances of Law [sic] Established for the Better Government of the Anny” (1642) vol I at 444; “Orders and Articles of Warr” (1666) vol I at 447. All cited ibid at 5.

97 Walker, D, The Oxford Companion to Law (1980) at 276CrossRefGoogle Scholar: “In feudal times one of the great officers of state who attended the King at his coronation and on military expeditions.”

98 Ibid at 387: “One of the great officers of state in England, head of the College of Arms; he appoints the kinds-of-arms, heralds and pursuivants, arranges stale ceremonials, and attends the sovereign at the opening and closing of Parliament. The office dates from the twelfth century and since 1672 has been held by the Howards, Dukes of Norfolk.”

99 Also known at various times as the High Court of Chivalry, the Court Military and the Court of Honour: see, eg, RA Brown, above n 94 at 319; Re Traceyi Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 521; W Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England: A Facsimile of the First Edition of 1765-1769 (Vol Ill, 1768) at 68 and 103-106.

100 G Squibb, above n 95 at 1-2.

101 See, eg, DP Derham, above n 7 at 157 and 190-191; W Wynes, above n 8 at 285-289.

102 RA Brown, above n 94 at 324; McGuinncss v Attorney-General (Vic) (1940) 63 CLR 73 at 90.

103 R v Bevan; Ex partc Elias and Gordon (1942) 66 CLR 452 at 479; Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 538,564, 574 and 592.

104 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 537,574,582 and 598.

105 Ibid at 537 per Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ.

106 Bwan (1942) 66 CLR 452 at 467-468; R v Cox; Ex parte Smith (1945) 71 CLR 1 at 23; Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 541, 572-574 and 598; cf 582-583; Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 498; Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 32 per Brem1an and Toohey JJ.

107 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 540 per Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ.

108 Bevan (1942) 66 CLR 452 at 466-468.

109 “The trial on indictment of any offence against any law of the Commonwealth shall be by jury, and every such trial shall be held in the State where the offence was committed, and if the offence was not committed within any State the trial shall be held at such place or places as the Parliament prescribes.”

110 R A Brown, above n 94 at 323.

111 Ibid.

112 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 540.

113 Ibid at 540-541.

114 Cox (1945) 7l CLR l at 23 per Dixon J; Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 583.

115 See, eg, R v Joske (1976) 135 CLR 194 at 216; Harris v Ca/adine (1991) 172 CLR 84 al 122.

116 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 583.

117 Constitution, s 122: “The Parliament may make laws for the government of any territory surrendered by any State to and accepted by the Commonwealth, or of any territory placed by the Queen under the authority of and accepted by the Commonwealth, or otherwise acquired by the Commonwealth, and may allow the representation of such territory in either House of the Parliament to the extent and on the terms which it thinks fit.”

118 Boilermakers (1957) 95 CLR 529 at 545 (Privy Council).

119 Zines, L, “Laws for the Government of any Territory: Section 122 of the Constitution” (1966) FL Rev 72 at 72-74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Horan, C, “Section 122 of the Constitution: a 'disparate and non-federal' power?” (1997) 25 FL Rev 97 at 102Google Scholar.

120 R v Bernasconi (Wl5) 19 CLR 629 at 635 per Griffith CJ (Gavan Duffy and Rich JJ agreeing); Porter v R; Ex parte Yee (1926) 37 CLR 432; Boilermakers (1957) 95 CLR 529 at 545 (Privy Council); Spratt v Hermes (1965) 114 CLR 226; Capital TV and Appliances Ply Ltd v Falconer (1971) 125 CLR 591 at 598 and 624. C Horan, above n 119 at 111-115; Magoffin, C, “The Australian Court System and the Demands of Federalism: Gould v Brown and the Constitutional Issues Raised by the Cross-Vesting Scheme” (1998) 20 Syd LR 329 at 337Google Scholar.

121 Capital Duplicators Pty Ltd v Australian Capital Territory (1992) 177 CLR 248; Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd I' Commonwealth (1997) 147 ALR 42. C Horan, above n 119 at 103; Zines, L, “The Nature of the Commonwealth” (1998) 20 Adel LR 83 at 85Google Scholar.

122 Kruger v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 83 per Toohey J, at 108-109 per Gaudron J and at 170-176 per Gummow J; Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd u Commonwealth (1997) 147 ALR 42 at 147; Gould v Brown (1998) 151 ALR 395 at 423-424 per Gaudron J, at 443-444 per McHugh J and at 497 per Kirby J; Northern Territory (f Australia v GPAO (1999) 161 ALR 3"18 at 349-350 per Gaudron J.

123 K Walker, above n 66; PH Lane, above n 9 at 465-466 and 909; C Howard, above n 7 at 276-281; Ro Dauison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 382.

124 On the history of courts martial in the United States and the historical basis for a separate military justice system see Captain Schlueter, D, “The Court-Martial: An Historical Survey” (1980) 87 Military Law Review 129Google Scholar and in particular at 166.

125 W Wynes, above n 8 at 431; cf M Groves, above n 30 at 461.

126 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 581 per Deane J.

127 S Ratnapala, “Harry Brandy's Case and its Implications for Taxation Administration in Australia” (1995) 18 UQLJ 233 at 247.

128 (1955) 92 CLR 157.

129 Under s 13 of the Australian Capital Territory Supreme Court Act 1933.

130 Richards (1955) 92 CLR 157 at 170.

131 Ibid at 167-168.

132 Ibid at 162 and 164-166.

133 Ibid at 162-163.

134 Ibid at 163-165.

135 Ibid at 167.

136 A comparison of this type of tribunal with military service tribunals is found in RA Brown, above n 94 at 321-322.

137 (1963) 109 CLR 665.

138 Ibid at 669-670.

139 (1991) 172 CLR 84.

140 Ibid at 95.

141 Ibid at 121-122.

142 Ibid at 149-152.

143 Ibid at 164.

144 lbid at 112-113 per Brennan J and at 135-142 per Toohey J.

145 Ibid at 91.

146 Commonwealth v Hospital Contribution Fund (1982) 150 CLR 49 at 59.

147 Harris (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 94.

148 An interesting reason advanced in E Kronenburg et al, above n 1 at 324 is that military courts, if the civil judicial system collapsed in a war, “might exercise civil jurisdiction to function as a back-up to the civil judicial system”.

149 R v Genereux [1992] 1 SCR 259 at 293. See also R v MacKay [1980] 2 SCR 370.

150 Curry u Secretary of the Army 595 F2d 873 at 877 (1979).

151 R Dayal J in Ram Sarup v Union of India (1965] Crim L) 23 at 240 cited in E Kronenburg et al, above n 1 at 330.

152 Sherman, E, “Military Justice Without l'vlilitaiy Control” (1973) 82 Yale I.] 1398 at 1402Google Scholar; Committee, above n 19 at 115-117 and 123.

153 Sen Deb 1999, No 8 at 5719.

154 J Bishop,Justice Under Fire A Study of Military I.aw (1974) at 24, citing United States ex rel Toth 11 Quarles, 350 US 11 at 18 (1955); J Hirschhorn, above n 40 at 182; E Sherman, above n 152 at 1401.

155 Bevan (1942) 66 CLR 452 at 481; Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 544-555; Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 474; Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 26.

156 Bevan (1942) 66 CLR 452 at 481 per Williams J.

157 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 545.

158 Ibid at 544-545.

159 Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 474-475.

160 Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 26.

161 See heading “Defining the Boundaries” below for further discussion of this issue.

162 J Kirk, above n 7 al 27.

163 Ibid at 4, 9 and 27. On the concept of “proportionality” in general, see Fitzgerald, B, “Proportionality in Australian Constitutionalism” (1993) 12 U Tas LR 263Google Scholar; Selway, B, “Rise and Rise of the Reasonable Proportionality Test in Public Law” (l996) 7 PLR 212Google Scholar; Cass, D, “Traversing the Divide: International Law and Australian Constitutional Law” (1998) 20 Adel LR 73 at 77Google Scholar.

164 J Kirk, above n 7 at 34-38.

165 See headings “Appropriate and Adapted” and “Minimum Jurisdiction Necessary” below.

166 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 570; Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 488; Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 30.

167 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 570.

168 Cf Hughes and Vale Ply Ltd v New South Wales (No 1) (1954) 93 CLR 1.

169 Re Tracey Cl989) 166 CLR 518 at 570-571; Gageler, S, “Gnawing at a File: An Analysis ofRe Tracey; Ex partc Ryan” (1990) 20 WALR 47 at 54-56Google Scholar.

170 In other words, the purpose of a law under the defence power is defence or war: Stenhouse u Coleman (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471.

171 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 597.

172 Ibid at 597, 601 and 603.

173 Ibid at 601.

174 Ibid at 602.

175 Ibid at 603; Re Nolan (1991) 172 C:LR 460 at 498; Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 34-35.

176 Re Tracey (1989) 166 C:LR 518 at 579-580.

177 Ibid at 580.

178 Re Tyler (1994) 181 C:LR 18 at 34.

179 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 584.

180 Ibid at 587-590.

181 Ibid at 590-592.

182 Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 490-493.

183 Re Tyler (1994) 181 C:LR 18 at 34.

184 Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 499.

185 On this issue, see generally Queensland v Commonwealth (1977) 139 CLR 585; John v Commissioner of Taxation (1989) 166 CLR 417; Stevens v Head (1993) 176 CLR 433; Belmett, A, “The Territories representation case-Stare Decisis in Constitutional Cases” (1978) 52 ALJ 664Google Scholar; Starke, J G, “Criteria according to which a final appellate court overrules an earlier decision by it” (1990) 64 ALJ 753Google Scholar; Horrigan, B, “Towards a Jurisprudence of High Court overruling” (1992) 66 ALJ 199Google Scholar; Jackson, D F, “Practice in the High Court of Australia” (1997) 15 Aus Bar Rev 187 at 209-211Google Scholar.

186 Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 36-37.

187 Ibid at 37-39.

188 Queensland” Commonwealth (1977) 139 CLR 585 at 599 per Gibbs J.

189 Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 39.

190 Groves v Commonwealth (1982) 150 CLR 113, referred to in A O'Neil, “Coutts v Commonwea.lth of Australia” (1986) 16 FL Rev 212 at 214; cf J Hirschhorn, above n 40 at 205.

191 J Walker, above n 41 at 1 and 30; S Thompson, above n 28 at 306. United States ex rel Toth u Quarles, 350 US 11 at 17 (1955): “[M]ilitary tribunals have not been and probably never can be constituted in such a way that they can have the same kind of qualifications that the Constitution has deemed essential to fair trials of civilians in federal courts.”

192 Cf A Heard, above n 43 at 544-545: “The justification for an infringement of the Charter by the military should be made on the grounds of necessity, rather than expediency, convenience, or tradition”.

193 DFDA, Part III. See also Cox (1945) 71 CLR 1 at 27. The analogous position in the United States is discussed in R Ackland, above n 44 at 1922. For the Canadian position, see A Heard, above n 43 at 516-517.

194 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 590-591; Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 489-490; Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 34.

195 Committee, above n 19 at 120 and 124.

196 “In short, the system of military justice must function effectively across the whole spectrum of conflict in which the Australian Defence Force can be expected to operate”: H Reps Deb 1999, No 8 at 5375.

197 Committee, above n 19 at 125.

198 Colonel K Northwood, Submission at 867, cited in Committee, above n 19 at 125.

199 Committee, above n 19 at '137-138.

200 R Ho, above n 20 at 179-180.

201 Fay, J B, “Canadian Military Criminal Law: An Examination of Military Justice” (1975) 23 Chitty's LJ no at 123Google Scholar; R Ackland, above n 44 at 1924-1925 citing Moyer, H ,Justice and the Military (1972) at 782Google Scholar; A Heard, above n 43 at 514 at 534.

202 J Hirschhorn, above n 40 at 205.

203 E Sherman, above n 152 at 1402.

204 Ibid.

205 Interestingly, W H Conwell noted above n 20 at 210: “Of course there can be courts-martial in peace time, too, but in Australia such courts have not been used in peace time to any great extent”. For trial statistics under the DFDA, see Committee, above n 19 at 27.

206 Groves v Commonwealth (1982) 150 CLR 113 at 117 per Gibbs CJ and at 136 per Murphy J; E Kronenburg et al, above n l at 334.

207 A Heard, above n 43 at 540; cf Note, , “Military Justice and Article III” (1990) 103 Harvard LR 1909 at 1927Google Scholar.

208 See, eg, J Bishop, above n 154 at 20; Moritz, G, “The Administration of Justice within the Armed Forces of the German Federal Republic” (1960) Military LR 1 at lGoogle Scholar; Kruger-Sprengel, F, “The German Military Legal System” (1972) 57 Military LR 17Google Scholar; E Sherman, above n 152; A Heard, above 11 43 at 514; R Ackland, above 11 44; E Kronenburg et al, above n 1.

209 This case can be seen as representing one of four categories of Supreme Court decisions prior to 1974: J Hirschhorn, above n 40 at 184-186.

210 United States ex rel Toth v Quarles 350 US 11 (1955).

211 See also O'Callahan v Parker 395 US258 at 265 (1969).

212 483 us 435 (1987).

213 R Ackland, above n 44 at 1910 and 1916-1918.

214 Austria and Denmark have also abolished their court martial systems: E Sherman, above n 152 at 1398.

215 Ibid at 1408-1411; K Kilimnik, “Germany's Army After Reunification: the Merging of the Nationalc Volksarmec into the Bundeswehr, 1990-1994” (1994) 145 Military LR 113 at 131-133.

216 E Sherman, above n 152 at 1411-1412.

217 Ibid at 1415.

218 Lindeblad, , “Swedish Milita1y Jurisdiction” (1963) 19 Military LR 123 at 126Google Scholar.

219 E Sherman, above n 152 at 1415.

220 [1998] HCA 47; (1998) 72 ALJR 1209.

221 [1998] HCA 47 at [32] per Gummow and CallinanJJ and at [44] and [72] per Kirby J.

222 The Laws of Australia, 9.1 Criminal Law, Commonwealth Military Tribunals and Military Service Offences (1998) at [87].