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The Implied Freedom of Political Communication and Disclosure of Government Information

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Richard Jolly
Richard Jolly*
Affiliation:
Queensland Treasury
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Extract

The implied freedom of communication about government and political matters is now firmly entrenched in constitutional jurisprudence, following the High Court decisions in Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation and Levy v Victoria. Both its existence and the manner of its implication, namely from the text and structure of the constitution, are “not open to doubt”. Although this more “traditional” approach to the derivation of constitutional implications appears to reduce the likelihood of further implications based upon representative government, the scope and extent of the implied freedom still require considerable elaboration. However, the application of accepted principles to particular areas, even if that leads to an expanded interpretation of the freedom, has a surer foundation than the derivation of new freedoms.

Type
Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 28 , Issue 1 , March 2000 , pp. 41 - 59
Copyright
Copyright © 2000 The Australian National University

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Footnotes

The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not represent the views of Queensland Treasury.

References

1 (1997) 189 CLR 520.

2 (1997) 189 CLR 579.

3 Ibid at 622 per McHughJ.

4 G Williams, “Sounding the Core of Representative Democracy: Implied Rights and Electoral Reform” (1996) 20 MULR 848.

5 In relation to free speech, Nationwide News Ltd v Wills (1992) 177 CLR 1; Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106; Theophanous v Herald and Weekly Times Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 104; Stephens v WA Newspapers Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 211; Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520; Levy v Victoria (1997) 189 CLR 579. In relation to electoral laws, McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140; Langer v Commonwealth (1996) 186 CLR 302; Muldowney v South Australia (1996) 186 CLR 352. See also Cunliffe v Commonwealth (1994) 182 CLR 272; Kruger v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1.

6 Australian Law Reform Commission / Administrative Review Council, Open government: a review of the federal Freedom of Information Act 1982 (ALRC 77/ ARC 40, 1995) at 11-14.

7 Also ss 1, 6, 8, 13, 25, 28, 30, 49, 62 and 83: Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 559-562. This confirms the approach of the majority in McGinty (1996) 186 CLR 140.

8 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 567.

9 Although see Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 47 per Brennan J.

10 P Bayne, Freedom of Information (1984) at 13-18; E Campbell, “Public Access to Government Documents” (1967) 41 ALJ 73 at 75; K Bishop, “Openness in Government: Can the Government Keep a Secret?” (1997) 4 ALAJ 35 at 36-37.

11 Sections 6, 49, 63, 64 and 83.

12 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 561.

13 However Parliament does have the ability to coerce information from its members, who may also be members of the executive: Egan v Willis (1998) 195 CLR 424.

14 [1981] AC 1096 at 1168.

15 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 561.

16 Compare B Walker, “Has Lange Really Settled the Common Law?” (1997) 8 PLR 216.

17 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 562-566, 568-575. However, the precise theoretical basis for this conclusion is difficult to locate: G Kennett, “The Freedom Ride: Where to Now?” (1998) 9 PLR 111 at 115-116.

18 (1994) 182 CLR 104.

19 (1994) 182 CLR 211.

20 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 566, 567.

21 Ibid at 567-568.

22 Ibid at 568.

23 Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 51 per Brennan J; Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 125 per Mason CJ, Toohey and GaudronJJ, at 149 per BrennanJ.

24 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 561.

25 Ibid at 560.

26 Executive powers are conferred upon the Commonwealth by s 61 of the Constitution, and upon the States by their Constitutions, which by s 106 are made subject to the Commonwealth Constitution: McGinty (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 171-172 per Brennan CJ.

27 That is, in the narrow sense of belonging to the Crown only, which include executive prerogatives, privileges and immunities, and proprietary rights: H Evatt, The Royal Prerogative (1987); Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Official Liquidator of EO Farley Ltd (1940) 63 CLR 278 at 320-321 per Evatt J.

28 Davis v Commonwealth (1988) 166 CLR 79 at 108 per Brennan J; L Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (4th ed 1997) at 254.

29 Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 164 per Deane J.

30 G Kennett, above n 17 at 112-114.

31 This term would appear to be no different in substance from the different formulations given in earlier cases: Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 121 per Mason CJ, Toohey and GaudronJJ.

32 (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 596.

33 Ibid at 626.

34 Ibid at 622.

35 Ibid at 644.

36 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 571-572. Also see Stephens (1994) 182 CLR 211 at 264 per McHugh J.

37 It will be assumed for the purposes of this discussion that the implied freedom does apply to political matters at all levels of government without distinction: L Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (4th ed 1990) at 391; cf G Camey, ''The Implied Freedom of Political Discussion-Its Impact on State Constitutions” (1995) 23 FL Rev 180 at 187.

38 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 561.

39 Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 124 per Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ.

40 (1994) 182 CLR 272 at 380 per Toohey J; G Williams, “Engineers is Dead, Long Live the Engineers” (1995) 17 Syd LR 62 at 79.

41 (1994) 182 CLR 272 at 298-299 per Mason CJ, at 340 per Deane J.

42 Manly v Ministry of Premier and Cabinet (1995) 14 WAR 550 at 571 per Owen J.

43 Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 73-74 per Deane and Toohey JJ; ACTV (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 174 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 560.

44 Cunliffe (1994) 182 CLR 272 at 335 per Deane J.

45 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 561; also Cunliffe (1994) 182 CLR 272 at 336 per Deane J.

46 Levy (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 623 per McHugh J.

47 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 560, citing Dawson J in ACTV (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 187.

48 Ibid at 561 (emphasis added).

49 Burmah Oil Co Ltd v Bank of England [1980] AC 1090 at 1112 per Lord Wilberforce; Sankey v Whitlam (1978) 142 CLR 1; Commonwealth v Northern Land Council (1993) 176 CLR 604; Conway v Rimmer [1968] AC 910.

50 (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 614 per Toohey and Gummow JJ, at 623 per McHugh J.

51 P Finn, Official Information Integrity in Government Project, Interim Report I, (1991).

52 For example, Freedom of Information Act 1992 (Qld), s 16.

53 ACTV (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 143 per Mason CJ; Levy (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 614 per Toohey and Gummow JJ, at 618-619 per Gaudron J, at 647-648 per Kirby J.

54 Pursuant to Public Service Act 1999 (Cth), ss 13(13) and 15.

55 See also s 79(3) which prohibits disclosure of certain material. These provisions were criticised by the Gibbs Committee Report, which recommended their repeal and replacement with more specific prohibitions: Final Report of the Review of Commonwealth Criminal Law, Parl Paper No 371 of 1991.

56 Compare Criminal Code 1899 (Qld), s 86, which only applies to information or documents that it is the person's “duty to keep secret”.

57 For example, Whistleblowers Protection Act 1994 (SA); Whistleblowers Protection Act 1993 (Qld). J McMillan, “The Whistleblower versus the Organization-Who Should be Protected?” in T Campbell and W Sadurski (eds), Freedom of Communication (1994) at 226; J McMillan, “Blowing the Whistle on Fraud in Government” (1988) 56 Canberra Bulletin of Public Administration 118 at 120.

58 Whistleblowers Protection Act 1994 (Qld), s 3.

59 (1994) 182 CLR 211 at 265.

60 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 561.

61 (1987) 10 NSWLR 86 at 191.

62 Commonwealth v John Fairfax and Sons Ltd (1980) 147 CLR 39 at 52 per Mason J; Attorney–General v Jonathan Cape Ltd [1976] QB 752.

63 Attorney-General (UK) v Heinemann Publishers Australia Pty Ltd (1988) 165 CLR 30 at 45 per Mason CJ, Wilson, Deane, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ.

64 Esso Australia Resources Ltd v Plowman (1995) 183 CLR 10 at 31 per Mason CJ (Dawson and McHugh JJ agreeing); cf British Steel Corporation v Granada Television Ltd [1981] AC 1096 at 1168 per Lord Wilberforce, at 1185 per Lord Salmon (dissenting).

65 Commonwealth v John Fairfax and Sons Ltd (1980) 147 CLR 39 at 52 per Mason J.

66 T Brennan, “Undertakings of Confidence by the Commonwealth-Are there Limits?” (1998) 18 AIAL Forum 8.

67 Freedom of Information Act 1989 (Cth); Freedom of Information Act 1982 (ACT); Freedom of Information Act 1992 (NSW); Freedom of Information Act 1989 (SA); Freedom of Information Act 1982 (Tas); Freedom of Information Act 1991 (Qld); Freedom of Information Act 1992 (Vic); Freedom of Information Act 1991 (WA).

68 FOI laws relate to documents held by government, rather than “information” generally. The discussion of rights of access in this part relates only to documentary information.

69 The Northern Territory has no FOI legislation, but the application of the implied freedom to the Territories remains uncertain: Kruger v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 70 per Dawson J, at 143-144 per McHugh J; contra at 92 per Toohey J, at 118-121 per Gaudron J. See also G Kennett, above n 17 at 122-123.

70 The First Amendment provides: “Congress shall make no law...abridging the freedom of

speech or of the press...”

71 Pell v Procunier 417 US 817 (1974); Saxbe v Washington Post Co 417 US 843 (1974); Nixon v Warner Communications Inc 435 US 589 (1978); Houchins v KQED Inc 438 US 1 (1978).

72 Houchins v KQED Inc 438 US 1 (1978) at 16 per Stewart J.

73 Ibid at 32.

74 100 S Ct 2814 (1980).

75 Ibid at 2825 per Burger CJ, White and Stevens JJ concurring.

76 Ibid at 2831 per Stevens J, at 2833 per Brennan and Marshall JJ.

77 Ibid at 2833 (emphasis added).

78 However the public right to attend criminal trials was confirmed in subsequent decisions: Globe Newspaper Co v Superior Court 102 S Ct 2613 (1982); Press Enterprises v Superior Court 104 S Ct 819 (1984); Press Enterprises v Superior Court 106 S Ct 2735 (1986).

79 A Cox, “Foreword: Freedom of Expression in the Burger Court” (1980) 94 Harv LR 1 at 23-4; A Lewis, “A Public Right to Know About Public Institutions: The First Amendment as Sword” (1980) The Supreme Court Review 1; A Lewis, “Comment: The First Amendment Right to Gather State-Held Information” (1980) 89 Yale LJ 923; T Emerson, “Legal Foundations of the Right to Know” (1976) Washington ULQ 1; V Blasi, “The Checking Value of the First Amendment” (1977) 3 American Bar Foundation Research Journal 521; M Hayes, “Whatever Happened to the Right to Know?: Access to Government-Controlled Information Since Richmond Newspapers” (1987) 73 Virginia LR 1111 at 1121.

80 C Sunstein, “Government Control of Information (1986) 74 Calif LR 859.

81 Theophanous (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 125 per Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ; Levy (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 638 per Kirby J.

82 A Meiklejohn, Free Speech and its Relation to Self Government (1948) discussed in E Barendt, Freedom of Speech (1987) at 20-23.

83 The majority in Theophanous made specific reference to Meiklejohn: (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 124 per Mason CJ, Toohey and GaudronJJ.

84 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 560; ACTV (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 150 per Brennan J; Levy (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 644 per Kirby J. Also S Gageler, implied Rights” in M Coper and G Williams (eds), The Cauldron of Constitutional Change (1997) at 85.

85 Levy (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 622 per McHugh J.

86 (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 232.

87 Quick, J and Garran, R, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (1901) at 958Google Scholar

88 (1912) 16 CLR 99 at 108, 109-110, citing Crandall v State of Nevada 73 US 35 (1868) at 44.

89 (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 206 per McHugh J.

90 Also Kruger v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 92 per Toohey J, at 116 per Gaudron J.

91 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 560, citing Brennan Jin Cunliffe (1994) 182 CLR 272 at 327.

92 Davis v Commonwealth (1998) 166 CLR 79 at 108 per Brennan J.

93 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 566.

94 Birkinshaw, P, Government and Information (1990) at 1Google Scholar

95 E Campbell, “Public Access to Government Documents” (1967) 41 AL] 73; R v Southwold Corporation; Ex Parte Wrightson (1907) 97 LT 431; K Bishop, above n 10.

96 (1986) 159 CLR 656, overturning Osmond v Public Service Board of New South Wales [1984] 3 NSWLR 447, particularly Kirby Pat 465.

97 This right is now provided by judicial review legislation, eg, Administrative Decisions CTudicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth), s 13.

98 Finn, P, “Confidentiality and the Public Interest” (1984) 58 AL 497 at 505Google Scholar cited byMason, CJ in Essa Resources Australia Ltd v Plowman (1995) 183 CLR 10 at 31Google Scholar

99 Finn, P, “A Sovereign People, A Public Trust” in P, Finn(Ed), Essays on Law and Government (Volume 1: Principles and Values) (1995) at16Google Scholar

100 (1994) 182 CLR 211 at 264; see also Attorney-General v Times Newspapers [1974] AC 273 at 315 per Lord Simon of Glaisdale.

101 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 571.

102 Warnink v Townend & Sons (Hull) Ltd [1979] AC 731 at 743 per Lord Diplock; cf Public Service Board of New South Wales v Osmond (1986) 159 CLR 656 at 669 per Gibbs CJ.

103 (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 568.

104 Sankey v Whitlam (1978) 142 CLR 1; Commonwealth v Northern Land Council (1993) 176 CLR 604; Conway v Rimmer [1968] AC 910. Generally, P Hogg, Liability of the Crown (2nd ed 1990) ch 4.

105 Commonwealth v Northern Land Council (1993) 176 CLR 604 at 618 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Dawson, Gaudron and McHugh JJ.

106 However the latter may require the High Court to overrule Public Service Board of New South Wales v Osmond (1986) 159 CLR 656.

107 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 561; British Steel Corp v Granada Television Ltd [1981] AC 1096 at 1168.

108 (1998) 195 CLR 424 at 451-452 per Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ, at 475-476 per McHugh J, at 501-503 per Kirby J.

109 Re Cleary and Department of the Treasury (1993) AAR 83 at 87; P Bayne, “Recurring Themes in the Commonwealth Freedom of Information Act” (1996) 24 F L Rev 287; A Cossins, “Revisiting Open Government: Recent Developments in Shifting the Boundaries of Government Secrecy under Public Interest Immunity and Freedom of Information Law” (1995) 23 f L Rev 226; P Bayne and K Rubenstein, “Freedom of Information and Democracy: A Return to the Basics?” (1994) 1 AJAL 107; P Bayne, “Freedom of Information and Political Speech” in T Campbell and W Sadurski (eds), Freedom of Communication (1994); J Mo,“Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Information and Open Government in Queensland” (1991) 36 FOI Rev 58.

110 Freedom of Information Act 1992 (Qld), s 3. FOi Acts also contain rights to obtain, and if necessary correct, personal information, but these are not relevant to this discussion.

111 Levy (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 622 per McHugh J.

112 Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337.

113 (1995) 14 WAR 550 at 571.

114 Re Cleary and Department of the Treasury (1993) AAR 83; Re Eccleston and Department of Aboriginal Services and Aboriginal and Islander Affairs (1993) 1 QAR 60; Manly v Ministry of Premier and Cabinet (1995) 14 WAR 550.

115 P Bayne and K Rubenstein, above n 109.

116 Freedom of Information Act 1982 (Cth), ss 34 and 35; Freedom of Information Act 1992 (Qld), ss 36 and 37; Freedom of Information Act 1982 (Vic), ss 28.

117 Freedom of Information Act 1982 (Cth), s 36; Freedom of Information Act 1992 (Qld), s 41.

118 Freedom of Information Act 1982 (Cth), s 4 exempts Commonwealth owned companies from the Act unless prescribed by regulation, and s 7 exempts the bodies named in Schedule 2.

119 Lange (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 561. For example, Government Owned Corporations Act 1993 (Qld), ch 3 Part 11.

120 Freedom of Information Act 1982 (Cth), s 45; Freedom of Information Act 1992 (Qld), s 46.

121 T Brennan, above n 66.

122 G, Hunt (ed), 9 Writings of James Madison (1910) 103 cited in Houchins v KQED Inc 438 US 1 (1978) at 31-32 per Stevens, Brennan and Powell JJGoogle Scholar