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Legal Exclusions: Émigré Lawyers, Admissions to Legal Practice and the Cultural Transformation of the Australian Legal Profession

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2025

Sara Dehm Open the ORCID record for Sara Dehm [Opens in a new window]
Sara Dehm*
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University of Technology Sydney
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The author may be contacted at sara.dehm@uts.edu.au.
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Abstract

Legal histories of Australia have largely overlooked the exclusion of European émigré lawyers from legal practice in Australia. This article recovers part of this forgotten history by tracing the drawn-out legal admission bids of two Jewish émigré lawyers in the mid-20th century: German-born Rudolf Kahn and Austrian-born Edward Korten. In examining their legal lives and doctrinal legacies, this article demonstrates the changing role and requirement of British subjecthood in the historical constitution and slow cultural transformation of the Australian legal profession. This article suggests that contemporary efforts to promoting cultural diversity in the Australian legal profession are enriched by paying attention to this long and difficult history of legal exclusions.

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Articles
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Federal Law Review , Volume 49 , Issue 3 , September 2021 , pp. 327 - 351
Copyright
Copyright © 2021 The Author(s)

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Footnotes

This article stems from a shared project with Katherine Biber and Ana Vrdoljak on European émigrés’ impact on Australian jurisprudence. I am indebted to them both for their input and advice. I also thank Ann Genovese, Anthea Vogl, Cait Storr, Eloise Chandler, Ben Silverstein and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful feedback. All errors remain my own.

References

1. Ingmar Taylor and Chris Winslow, ‘Data on Diversity: The 2018 Survey’ (Autumn 2019) Bar News: The Journal of the NSW Bar Association 39.

2. See The State of the Victorian Bar: Performance, Challenges, and Opportunities (Web Page, March 2018) <https://www.vicbar.com.au/sites/default/files/The%20State%20of%20the%20Victorian%20Bar%20report.pdf>; Asian Australian Lawyers Association, ‘The Australian Legal Profession: A Snapshot of Asian Australian Diversity in 2015’ (Web Page, 14 April 2014) <http://www.aala.org.au/resources/Documents/AALA%20Report%20Final.pdf>.

3. Kahn v The Board of Examiners (Vic) (1939) 62 CLR 422, 428 (Latham CJ) (‘Kahn’); Transcript of Proceedings, ‘Korten Eduard versus The Council of the Bar Association of New South Wales [on Appeal from the New South Wales Supreme Court—Admission to the Bar of New South Wales]’ (1942–1943), (NAA: Series No A10071, Control Symbol 1942/2, Item Barcode 8351267) (‘Korten’).

4. Mark Lunney, ‘Legal Émigrés and the Development of Australian Tort Law’ (2012) 36(2) Melbourne University Law Review 494, 495.

5. Jack Beatson and Reinhard Zimmermann (eds), Jurists Uprooted: German-Speaking Émigré Lawyers in Twentieth-Century Britain (Oxford University Press, 2004); Kyle Graham, ‘The Refugee Jurist and American Law Schools, 1933-1941’ (2002) 50(4) American Journal of Comparative Law 777; Jason Allen, ‘Germany’s Refugee Lawyers and Anglo-German Comparative Law’ (2015) 1 Anglo-German Law Journal 5.

6. Ann Genovese, Shaun McVeigh and Peter D Rush, ‘Lives Lived with Law: An Introduction’ (2016) 20 Law, Text, Culture 1, 2.

7. Victoria Barnes, Catharine MacMillan and Stefan Vogenauer, ‘On Legal Biography’ (2020) 41(2) Journal of Legal History 115, 116.

8. Rob McQueen, ‘Together We Fall, Divided We Stand: The Victorian Legal Profession in Crisis 1890–1940’ in W Wesley Pue and David Sugarman (eds), Lawyers and Vampires: Cultural Histories of Legal Professions (Hart, 2003) 293, 325.

9. Ibid 293.

10. David Weisbrot, ‘The Australian Legal Profession: From Provincial Family Firms to Multinationals’ in Richard Abel and Philip Lewis (eds), Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World (University of California Press, 1988) 244.

11. Ibid 270–7.

12. John Chesterman, ‘Natural-Born Subjects? Race and British Subjecthood in Australia’ (2005) 51(1) Australian Journal of Politics and History 30, 32.

13. Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge University Press, 2008).

14. Robert Lenoir, ‘Citizenship as a Requirement for the Practice of Law in Ontario’ (1981) 13(3) Ottawa Law Review 527; CEA Bedwell, ‘Conditions of Admission to the Legal Profession throughout the British Empire’ (1912) 12(2) Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation 209.

15. See, eg, Collated Supreme Court Rules 1925 (SA) r 20; The Legal Practitioners Act 1893 (WA) s 14; Legal Practitioners Acts Amendment Act 1968 (Qld) s 7(a).

16. JM Bennett, A History of the New South Wales Bar (Law Book, 1969) 45.

17. Similarly, the Solicitors Act 1843 (UK) also made no mention of a candidate’s nationality.

18. See George Goldsmith, The English Bar; or Guide to the Inns of Court (Edmund Spettigue, 1843) ch VII.

19. This was despite Blackstone’s Commentaries stating that the ‘oath of allegiance may be tendered to all persons…whether natives, denizens, or alien…’: William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England: Book the First (Clarendon Press, 1765) 356. This requirement created uncertainty concerning admitting Jewish candidates, with the first Jewish barrister only admitted to the English bar in 1833.

20. Clare Rider, ‘The Admission of Overseas Students to the Inner Temple in the 19th Century’, The Inner Temple (Web Page) <https://www.innertemple.org.uk/who-we-are/history/historical-articles/the-admission-of-overseas-students-to-the-inner-temple-in-the-19th-century>.

21. ‘Rules and Regulations for Admission to Practise as Barristers, and as Attorneys, Solicitors, and Proctors, in the Supreme Court of the Colony of Victoria’, in Victoria Government Gazette, 27 April 1853, 573, 597.

22. Arthur Dean, A Multitude of Counsellors: A History of the Bar of Victoria (FW Cheshire, 1968) 25.

23. Richard Harrison, ‘The Legal Profession in Colonial Victoria’ (2014) 13 Provenance <https://prov.vic.gov.au/index.php/explore-collection/provenance-journal/provenance-2014/legal-profession-colonial-victoria>.

24. Ibid. Harrison designates a person’s ancestry using birthplace and surname information, a methodology he acknowledges is imprecise.

25. Nadia Rhook, ‘Hearing the Supreme Court’ in Simon Smith (ed), Judging for the People: A Social History of the Supreme Court in Victoria 1841-2016 (Royal Historical Society of Victoria, 2016) 196.

26. Ibid.

27. Legal Profession Practice Act 1891 (Vic).

28. Legal Practitioners Reciprocity Act 1903 (Vic) ss 6(2)−(4).

29. Rules of Council of Legal Education 1915 (Vic).

30. In 1958, these two bodies merged to form the Joint Admission Board. David Barker, A History of Australian Legal Education (Federation Press, 2017) 30.

31. ‘A Chinese Barrister’, Leader (Melbourne, 29 November 1902) 36; John Lack, ‘Ah Ket, William (1876-1936)’, Australian Dictionary of Biography (Web Page, published first in hard copy 1979) <http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/ah-ket-william-4979/text8267> (‘ADB’).

32. ‘NSW Bar: First Syrian Barrister’, Brisbane Courier (Brisbane, 15 March 1924) 7.

33. ‘Syrian from NZ who Wears a Barrister’s Wig’, Truth (Sydney, 9 August 1925) 8; Jane Needham, ‘Tipping the Scales: Equity and Diversity at the Bar’ (Summer 2015) Bar News: The Journal of the New South Wales Bar Association 29.

34. ‘First Chinese at Bar’, The Daily Telegraph (Sydney, 28 May 1938) 8.

35. Malcolm Oakes, ‘William Lee: First Barrister of Chinese Descent Admitted to the New South Wales Bar’ (Winter 2015) Bar News: The Journal of the New South Wales Bar Association 73, 75.

36. Simone Ladwig-Winters, Lawyers without Rights: The Fate of Jewish Lawyers in Berlin after 1933 (ABA Book Publishing, 2018) 33−44.

37. Douglas G Morris, ‘Discrimination, Degradation, Defiance: Jewish Lawyers under Nazism’ in Alan E Steinweis and Robert D Rachlin (eds), The Law in Nazi Germany: Ideology, Opportunism, and the Perversion of Justice (Berghahn Books, 2013) 105, 110.

38. Ibid 106.

39. Simone Ladwig-Winters, Lawyers without Rights: The Fate of Jewish Lawyers in Berlin after 1933 (ABA Book Publishing, 2018).

40. Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums [Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service] (Germany) 7 April 1933, RGBI I, 1933, 175; Gesetz über die Zulassung zur Rechtsanwaltschaft [Law on Admission to the Bar] (Germany) 7 April 1933, RGBI I, 1933, 188.

41. Morris (n 37) 111.

42. Jack Beatson, ‘Aliens, Enemy Aliens, and Friendly Enemy Aliens: Britain as a Home for Émigré and Refugee Lawyers’ in Beatson and Zimmermann (n 5) 73, 87.

43. Morris notes that this exception had gendered effects, effectively eliminating Jewish women lawyers from practice. German women were only admitted to the bar from 1922; however, by 1933, 20 Jewish women lawyers practised in Berlin: Morris (n 37) 116.

44. Ibid 129.

45. Barbara Sauer and Ilse Rieter-Zatloukal, Advokaten 1938: Das Schicksal der in den Jahren 1938 bis 1945 verfolgten österrichischen Rechtsanwältinnen under Rechtsanwälte (Manz, 2010).

46. See generally ibid.

47. Michael Blakeney, Australia and the Jewish Refugees, 1933-48 (Croom Helm, 1985) 101.

48. Andrew Markus, ‘Jewish Migration to Australia 1938-49’ (1983) 7(13) Journal of Australian Studies 18, 18.

49. Blakeney (n 47) 131.

50. Markus (n 48) 19.

51. Although the legal concept of Australian citizenship would not come into being until 1948, the Australian interwar naturalisation regime nonetheless created distinct characteristics for an emerging citizenship in practice. Kim Rubenstein, ‘Citizenship and the Centenary: Inclusion and Exclusion in 20th Century Australia’ (2000) 24(3) Melbourne University Law Review 576.

52. Nationality Act 1920 (Cth) s 7(1).

53. ‘KAHN Rudolf Ernst—born 15 October 1896—German' (1931–1944), (NAA: Series No A435, Control Symbol 1944/4/6966, Item Barcode 6997432).

54. David Henderson, ‘A Travesty of British Justice? Appealing against Internment during the Second World War’ (2019) 65(1) Australian Journal of Politics and History 66.

55. National Security (Alien Doctors) Regulations 1942 (Cth). See Gabrielle Wolf, ‘Moritz Meyer and the Medical Board: Preventing Refugee Doctors from Practising Medicine in Victoria, Australia, 1937–1958’ (2018) 26 Journal of Law and Medicine 61.

56. ‘Lawyers in Farm Jobs’, Sunday Times (Perth, 29 January 1939) 3.

57. ‘Employment and Practice Register’ [1938] 12(11) Law Institute Journal 185; ‘Employment and Practice Register’ [1939] 13(5) Law Institute Journal 80.

58. Kahn (n 3).

59. German Embassy to Department of External Affairs, 14 October 1965, ‘Decorations and Awards—Germany—Kahn, Rudolf Ernest' (1965–1966), (NAA: Series No A1838, Control Symbol 1535/25/16, Item Barcode 3349480).

60. Rudolf Kahn, ‘Arbitration in England and Germany: A Study in Comparative Legislation and Conflict of Laws’ (1930) 12(1) Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law 228.

61. Ladwig-Winters (n 36) 268.

62. ‘Barristers and Solicitors Admission Files’, PROV, VPRS 468/P/000026 (‘Barristers and Solicitors Admission Files’).

63. George Liebsmann, Diplomacy between the Wars (IB Tauris, 2008) 52.

64. Stuart Sayers, ‘Yencken, Arthur Ferdinand (1894–1944)’, ADB, <http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/yencken-arthur-ferdinand-9296>.

65. ‘Barristers and Solicitors Admission Files’ (n 62).

66. Maria Reynders Ristaino, Port of Last Resort: The Diaspora Communities of Shanghai (Stanford University Press, 2001) 5.

67. ‘Barristers and Solicitors Admission Files’ (n 62).

68. Kahn to Menzies, 18 June 1938, (NAA: Series No A432, Control Symbol 1938/876, Item Barcode 1125940).

69. Legal Profession Practice Act 1928 (Vic) s 21.

70. Rules for the Council of Legal Education 1932-37 (Vic) r 36.

71. Peter Balmford, ‘Ham, Wilbur Lincoln (1883–1948)’, ADB, <http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/ham-wilbur-lincoln-6535>. Dean (n 22) 229, described Wilbur Ham as ‘one of the leading lawyers in the 1930’s and 1940’s’ who was ‘all-powerful, learned and skilful’.

72. In re Kahn [1939] VLR 273, 277.

73. ‘No Right to Practice: Alien Barrister’, The Argus (Melbourne, 3 May 1939) 2.

74. Kahn (1939) 62 CLR 422, 428 (Latham CJ).

75. Ibid 433 (Rich J).

76. Ibid 434.

77. Ibid 431 (Latham CJ).

78. Ibid 443 (Starke J).

79. Ibid 449–50 (Evatt J) (emphasis added).

80. ‘German Lawyer Not Allowed to Join Victorian Bar’, The Herald (Melbourne, 2 May 1939) 10; ‘No Right to Practice’, The Argus (Melbourne, 3 May 1939) 2; ‘Appeal by German: Admission to Bar Sought’, The Herald (Melbourne, 15 May 1939) 2; ‘Court Refuses Lawyers Appeal’, The Herald (Melbourne, 21 July 1939) 9.

81. ‘Judge Outspoken on Jews’ Plight: Opposes Ban upon Lawyer’, Sun (Sydney, 21 July 1939) 3.

82. ‘Annual Report for the Year Ended 30th September, 1939’ [1939] 13(11) Law Institute Journal 187.

83. Department of Interior, Correspondence file, ‘KAHN Rudolf Ernst—born 15 October 1896—German’ (1931–1944) (NAA: Series No A435, Control Symbol 1944/4/6966, Item Barcode 6997432).

84. Commonwealth of Australia, Certificate of Naturalisation for Rudolf Ernst Kahn (Certificate, 14 March 1940). See also ‘German Lawyer Can Practice Now’, Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners’ Advocate (2 April 1940) 9; ‘Bar between Him and Bar Gone: Dr Kahn Admitted as Lawyer’, Recorder (Adelaide, 2 April 1940) 1.

85. Born and educated in Melbourne, Reginald Sholl completed his law degree at Oxford as a Rhodes scholar. Sholl was called to the bar at Middle Temple in 1927, before returning to Victoria to be admitted into legal practice in 1928. Sholl’s time in London coincided with Kahn’s, although it is unclear if they knew each other then: Laurence W Maher, ‘Sholl, Sir Reginald Richard (1902–1988)’, ADB, <http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/sholl-sir-reginald-richard-15488>.

86. Maurice Ashkanasy was himself an émigré, having been born in London in 1901 and emigrating with his family at the age of nine to Australia. Ashkanasy studied law at Melbourne University and was admitted to the Victorian Bar in 1924. There he formed a lifelong friendship with Robert Menzies: Zelmen Cowen, ‘Ashkanasy, Maurice (1901–1971)’, ADB, <http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/ashkanasy-maurice-9391>. Whilst archival research provide no evidence that Menzies put Kahn in contact with Ashkanasy, this seems a highly likely outcome from Kahn’s correspondence with Menzies in 1938, given that Kahn listed Ashkanasy as his sponsor on his Australian entry permit at the end of that year. Ashkanasy would go on to be the Vice-Chairman (1952) and Chairman (1953–6) of the Victorian Bar; the President of the newly-established national Executive Council of Australian Jewry in 1944; and the founding president of the Victorian Jewish Board of Deputies in 1947.

87. Kahn to Secretary, Department of Interior, ‘KAHN Rufold Ernst—born 15 October 1896—German’ (1931–1944), (NAA: Series No A435, Control Symbol 1944/4/6966, Item Barcode 6997432).

88. ‘University Degrees and Diplomas Conferred’, The Herald (Melbourne, 20 December 1947) 7.

89. ‘Personal Items’, The Bulletin (9 March 1949) 18.

90. In her memoir detailing life growing up with two parents who had survived the Holocaust, Ramona Koval notes that:

In the 1960s reparation pensions became available to Holocaust survivors. We’d get letters from Germany via a firm of Melbourne solicitors, Kahn Clahr & Garsa, that dealt with survivors’ claims. The gothic script and long dark-cream envelopes made it seem as if the missives came directly from the Third Reich.

Ramona Koval, Bloodhound: Searching for My Father (Text Publishing, 2015) 16.

91. German Embassy to Department of External Affairs, 14 October 1965, ‘Decorations and Awards—Germany—Kahn, Rudolf Ernest’ (1965–1966), (NAA: Series No A1838, Control Symbol 1535/25/16, Item Barcode 3349480).

92. Victoria, Birth, Deaths, and Marriages Registry, Rudolph Ernest Kahn (Death Certificate No 18087/1978). His wife, Hanna, passed away five years later in 1983.

93. ‘Legal Action’ [1998] 72(5) Law Institute Journal 29.

94. Authorised under the Legal Practitioners Act 1898-1936 (NSW).

95. Korten Affidavit, 1 December 1941, ‘KORTEN Eduard versus The Council of the Bar Association of New South Wales [on Appeal from the New South Wales Supreme Court—Admission to the Bar of New South Wales’ (1942–1943), (NAA: Series No A10071, Control Symbol 1942/2, Item Barcode 8351267). See also HV Pisk Affidavit, 4 December 1941, ‘KORTEN Eduard versus The Council of the Bar Association of New South Wales [on appeal from the New South Wales Supreme Court—Admission to the Bar of New South Wales’ (1942–1943), (NAA: Series No A10071, Control Symbol 1942/2, Item Barcode 8351267), stating that ‘Dr Korten was generally regarded as being among the most distinguished of the senior practitioners’ of the Viennese Bar, and that his ‘integrity was universally conceded and he was held in high esteem by his fellow practitioners’.

96. ‘KORTEN Eduard versus The Council of the Bar Association of New South Wales [on Appeal from the New South Wales Supreme Court—Admission to the Bar of New South Wales’ (1942–1943), (NAA: Series No A10071, Control Symbol 1942/2, Item Barcode 8351267).

97. Korten Affidavit (n 95).

98. Sauer and Rieter-Zatloukal (n 45) 211.

99. See ‘Barrister Admission Board’, Hebrew Standard of Australasia (Sydney, 23 November 1939) 5, celebrating Korten as the ‘first refugee to pass in a course at Sydney University’.

100. Hay to Evatt, 4 December 1941, ‘Dr E Korten—Re Admittance to the Bar—Request for Exemption as an Enemy Alien’ (1941–1944), (NAA: Series No A472, Control Symbol W5011, Item Barcode 5148640).

101. ‘Viennese Barrister Washes Cars’, The Armidale Express (Armidale, 21 August 1940) 4.

102. Korten Affidavit (n 95).

103. Board to Korten, 20 September 1941, ‘KORTEN Eduard versus The Council of the Bar Association of New South Wales [on Appeal from the New South Wales Supreme Court—Admission to the Bar of New South Wales’ (1942–1943), (NAA: Series No A10071, Control Symbol 1942/2, Item Barcode 8351267).

104. JM Bennett, ‘Snelling, Harold Alfred Rush (1904–1979)’, ADB, <http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/snelling-harold-alfred-rush-11731>.

105. Korten Affidavit (n 95).

106. Ex Parte Korten (Unreported, Supreme Court of New South Wales, Halse Rogers, Street and Maxwell JJ, 11 December 1941) (Halse Rogers J), ‘KORTEN Eduard versus The Council of the Bar Association of New South Wales [on Appeal from the New South Wales Supreme Court—Admission to the Bar of New South Wales’ (1942–1943), (NAA: Series No A10071, Control Symbol 1942/2, Item Barcode 8351267).

107. Ibid.

108. Korten (n 3).

109. Ibid 4. At the time, Teece was NSW Bar Association President, while Fuller was the Association’s Treasurer.

110. Ibid 1.

111. Elfte Verordnung zum Reichsbürgergesetz, [11th Decree on the Reich Citizenship Law] (Germany) 25 November 1941, RGBI I, 1941, 722. Korten submitted a translated version of this regulation in his HCA appeal book: ‘KORTEN Eduard versus The Council of the Bar Association of New South Wales [on appeal from the New South Wales Supreme Court—admission to the Bar of New South Wales’ (1942–1943), (NAA: Series No A10071, Control Symbol 1942/2, Item Barcode 8351267).

112. Korten (n 3) 4.

113. Ibid 6.

114. Ibid.

115. Barristers’ Admission Board Meeting Minutes, 28 October 1942, (NSW State Archives: NRS-13671, 4/8352, 200). A former United Australia Party politician, Nicholas was appointed to the NSW Supreme Court in 1935, and promoted to Chief Judge in Equity in 1939 until his retirement in 1948.

116. Herbert to Korten, 29 October 1942, (NAA: Series No A472, Control Symbol W5011, Item Barcode 5148640).

117. ‘Dr E Korten—Re Admittance to the Bar—Request for Exemption as an Enemy Alien’ (1941–1944), (NAA: Series No A472, Control Symbol W5011, Item Barcode 5148640).

118. Kahn (n 3).

119. Korten to Evatt, 4 December 1942, (NAA: Series No A472, Control Symbol W5011, Item Barcode 5148640).

120. Evatt to Korten, 3 February 1943, (NAA: Series No A472, Control Symbol W5011, Item Barcode 5148640).

121. Korten to Evatt, 6 February 1943, (NAA: Series No A472, Control Symbol W5011, Item Barcode 5148640), citing Butterworth, Halsbury’s Laws of England: Being a Complete Statement of the Whole Law of England, vol 1 (2nd ed, 1931–1942) 463.

122. Jack Richardson, ‘Bailey, Sir Kenneth Hamilton (1898-1972)’, ADB, <http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/bailey-sir-kenneth-hamilton-9404>.

123. ‘Memorandum for the Solicitor-General re Application for Letters of Denization by Dr. E. Korten’, 19 March 1943, (NAA: Series No A472, Control Symbol W5011, Item Barcode 5148640).

124. Ibid.

125. Ibid.

126. Whitlam to Department of Interior, 3 November 1943, ‘Korten, E—Naturalisation’ (1943–1944), (NAA: Series No A659, Control Symbol 1943/1/1768, Item Barcode 1889689).

127. ‘Korten, E—Naturalisation’ (1943-1944), (NAA: Series No A659, Control Symbol 1943/1/1768, Item Barcode 1889689).

128. Korten to Evatt, 17 February 1944, (NAA: Series No A472, Control Symbol W5011, Item Barcode 5148640).

129. NSW Government, Law Almanac (1947).

130. See generally ‘Miscellaneous. Request that Name Be Placed on List of Australian Attorneys, KORTEN, Dr. Edward’ (1947–1948) (NAA: Series No A1068, Control Symbol IC47/61/42, Item Barcode 196600).

131. HFE Whitlam, Crown Solicitor, ‘Memorandum for The Secretary, Department of External Affairs’, 27 May 1948, ‘Miscellaneous. Request that name be placed on list of Australian Attorneys, KORTEN, Dr. Edward’ (1947–1947), (NAA: Series No A1068, Control Symbol IC47/61/42, Item Barcode 196600).

132. Korten to Department of External Affairs, 17 December 1947, ‘Miscellaneous. Request that name be placed on list of Australian Attorneys, KORTEN, Dr. Edward’ (1947–1947), (NAA: Series No A1068, Control Symbol IC47/61/42, Item Barcode 196600).

133. Korten to Department of External Affairs, 8 July 1948, (NAA: Series No A1068, Control Symbol IC47/61/42, Item Barcode 196600).

134. Korten, ‘Memorandum on the Grant of Naturalisation to Persons who Intend to Travel Abroad’, 25 July 1946, ‘KORTEN E—1—Suggestion re: Naturalisation of Persons about to Leave Australia 2—Application for Persons about to Leave Australia—Suggestions by Above’ (1946), (NAA: Series No A435, Control Symbol 1946/4/5652, Item Barcode 7006346).

135. Edward Korten, No Security without Indemnity: War Damage Compensation and Post-War Security (Shepherd & Newman, 1945).

136. ‘Barrister Dies at Court’, 17 September 1948, ‘Miscellaneous. Request that name be placed on list of Australian Attorneys, KORTEN, Dr. Edward’ (1947–1947), (NAA: Series No A1068, Control Symbol IC47/61/42, Item Barcode 196600). Korten’s wife, Elvira (now Ellen) passed away in 1967. NSW, Deaths Registrar, No 39255/1967.

137. Department of Veteran Affairs, ‘Service Record: Borensztejn, Syalon Lejb’, Service No VX92872.

138. ‘Only British Subjects Can be Lawyers’, The Age (Melbourne, 15 December 1960) 22.

139. Borensztejn v Board of Examiners [1961] VR 209.

140. Ibid 211 (Sholl J).

141. ‘Certificates of Naturalization’, Commonwealth of Australia Gazette, Issue 77, 23 September 1965, 4145.

142. Re Ho (1975) 5 ALR 304.

143. Supreme Court Admission Rules 1955-75 (SA) r 46 conferred discretion on the Court to exempt a person from the requirements of the Rules ‘if it thought fit to do so’.

144. Re Ho (1975) 5 ALR 304.

145. Ibid 310.

146. ‘Rules of Court Amending the Supreme Court Admission Rules, 15 December 1975’ in South Australia, The South Australian Government Gazette, No 3, 15 January 1976, 243.

147. Re Howard [1976] 1 NSWLR 641, 649.

148. Ibid 643.

149. Ibid 646.

150. NSW Government Gazette, 1 April 1977, Issue 32, 1277.

151. Legal Profession Practice (Amendment) Act 1978 (Vic) cl 2. Whether to excuse the requirement of an oath of allegiance was the subject of subsequent cases: see Re Miller [1979] VR 381; Nicholls v Board of Examiners for Barristers and Solicitors [1986] VR 719.

152. Legal Profession Practice (Amendment) Act 1985 (Vic).

153. ‘Amending the LPP Act’ [1986] 60(4) Law Institute Journal 298.

154. ‘Library Benefits from Foreign Admissions’ [1984] 58(12) Law Institute Journal 1379.

155. Nicholas Carson, ‘Australia and Nearby Countries’ (1996) 63 Defense Counsel Journal 373.

156. Engebretson v Bartlett (2007) 16 VR 417.

157. Lindisfarne R & SLA Sub-Branch and Citizen’s Club Inc v Buchanan (2004) 80 ALD 122.

158. Re Patterson; Ex parte Taylor (2001) 207 CLR 391.

159. Samuel Pararajasingham, ‘Race and the Bar’ [2019] (Autumn) Bar News: The Journal of the NSW Bar Association 60.

160. Derrick Bell, Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism (Basic Books, 1992).