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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 January 2025
The rule of law is fundamental to our society. Certainty about what the law is, is important to the rule of law.
Those whose activities may be affected both by Commonwealth laws and by State laws need certainty about whether the Commonwealth law overrides, or is subject to, State law. Those who administer Commonwealth law or State law need certainty about the relationship between the two. To participate in law-making on an informed basis, law-makers need certainty about what will be the legal effect of legislation which they enact.
My thanks to David Fintan and Jennifer Loutit who assisted in research to support this article.
1 ‘The Nature of Inconsistency under Section 109 of the Constitution’ (1980) 11 Federal Law Review 40.
2 Geoffrey Lindell has supported this analysis in ‘Grappling with Inconsistency between Commonwealth and State Legislation and the Link with Statutory Interpretation’ (2005) 8 Constitutional Law and Policy Review 25.
3 Western Australia v Commonwealth (1995) 183 CLR 373, 464–5 ('Native Title Act Case’).
4 See generally Leslie, Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (5th ed, 2008)Google Scholar ch 1.
5 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Company Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129 ('Engineers’).
6 Ibid 154.
7 See generally Zines, above n 4, chs 2 and 3.
8 For example, Wenn v A-G (Vic) (1948) 77 CLR 84 ('Wenn’); Australian Coastal Shipping Commission v O'Reilly (1962) 107 CLR 46 ('O'Reilly’).
9 Ibid 56-57.
10 Council of the Municipality of Botany v Federal Airports Corporation (1992) 175 CLR 453 ('Third Runway Case’).
11 Ibid 465 (emphasis added).
12 Ibid.
13 (1995) 183 CLR 373, 465–8 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron, McHugh JJ; Dawson J concurring).
14 (2004) 216 CLR 595, 627–8 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Heydon JJ), 644–5 (McHugh J) ('Bayside’).
15 (2006) 229 CLR 1, 159–69 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan JJ) ('Work Choices’).
16 Ibid 166-7.
17 Ibid.
18 The recent decision in Dickson v The Queen [2010] HCA 30 ('Dickson’) is consistent with this line of authority. The Court's reasons for concluding that there was inconsistency in that case included that ‘[The State law] renders criminal conduct not caught by, and indeed deliberately excluded from, the conduct rendered criminal by [the Commonwealth law]'. Ibid [22] (emphasis added). See also references to ‘deliberate legislative choice’ influenced by reviews of criminal law ibid [24].
19 (1948) 77 CLR 84, 120.
20 (1995) 183 CLR 373, 466–7.
21 (2006) 229 CLR 1, 166.
22 See discussion above, 447–448.
23 Lindell, above n 2, 37, writing before Work Choices expressed a similar view:
It is difficult to see why the absence of law should be treated as any different from a law which seeks to replace State law with other law — particularly when regard is had to the plenary nature power of the Parliament to pass laws for the peace, order and good government of the Commonwealth.
24 (2006) 229 CLR 1, 167.
25 Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Proprietary Ltd v Wardley (1980) 142 CLR 237 ('Wardley’).
26 Commercial Radio Coffs Harbour Ltd v Fuller (1986) 161 CLR 47, 56 (Wilson, Deane, Dawson JJ) ('Coffs Harbour’); Dao v Australian Postal Commission (1987) 162 CLR 317, 335 (Mason CJ, Wilson, Deane, Dawson, Toohey JJ).
27 (1980) 142 CLR 237, 260.
28 (1962) 107 CLR 46.
29 (1986) 160 CLR 330 ('Goulden’).
30 (2004) 216 CLR 595.
31 (1962) 107 CLR 46.
32 Ibid. The Commonwealth law had a provision subjecting the Commission to Commonwealth tax. But Commonwealth tax and State tax are not the same subject matter. On this point, see Zines, above n 4, 473–83.
33 (1986) 160 CLR 330.
34 Ibid 336.
35 (2004) 216 CLR 595, 626.
36 Ibid 644.
37 See discussion above, 448–450.
38 (1995) 183 CLR 373.
39 Ibid 486–7.
40 Ibid 487–8.
41 See discussion above, 447–448.
42 (1920) 28 CLR 129, 154.
43 Lindell, above n 2, 38–9.
44 Ibid 39.
45 See discussion above, 452–453.
46 (1994) 179 CLR 388.
47 Ibid 396 (Toohey and Gaudron JJ); and agreed, 393 (Deane and Dawson JJ), 401 (McHugh J).
48 (1995) 183 CLR 373, 437–8.
49 Ibid 487.
50 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission v CG Berbatis Holdings Pty Ltd (2000) 96 FCR 491. My thanks to Dr Peter Johnston Adjunct Professorial Fellow University of Western Australia for drawing my attention to this case.
51 Ibid 510.
52 Lindell, above n 2, 39. The common law which operates when State legislation is excluded from operation by valid Commonwealth legislation may— like native title — be more complex and have more content than ‘negative common law freedom'.
53 (1977) 137 CLR 545, 563–4.
54 Ibid 563–4.
55 Rumble, above n 1, 55–83.
56 (1925) 36 CLR 170.
57 (1980) 142 CLR 237; see also discussion above, 452.
58 (1986) 161 CLR 47.
59 (1992) 175 CLR 453, 465.
60 (1980) 142 CLR 237, 280.
61 [2010] HCA 30 [22]-[35].
62 Ibid [24]. See also [22] and [25].
63 [2010] HCA 30 [32].
64 Ibid.
65 Ibid.
66 [2010] HCA 30 [35]. The Court concluded that a declaration in Chapter 7 of the Commonwealth Criminal Code of intention not to ‘exclude or limit’ the operation of State laws ‘could not displace or avoid’ a ‘direct collision’ of the State law with provisions in Chapter 2 of the Criminal Code [36]–[37].
67 (1984) 158 CLR 447 (Gibbs, CJ, Murphy, Brennan and Deane JJ; Mason, Wilson and Dawson JJ dissenting) ('Metwally’).
68 Ibid 455–7 (Gibbs CJ), 469–70 (Murphy J), 473–5 (Brennan J), 478–9 Deane J.
69 HP, Lee, ‘Retrospective Amendment of Federal Laws and the Inconsistency Doctrine in Australia’ (1985) 15 Federal Law Review 335Google Scholar.
70 Zines, above n 4, 583–5.
71 (1984) 158 CLR 447, 460.
72 (1984) 158 CLR 447, 454–6 (Gibbs CJ), 474–5 (Brennan J).
73 (1986) 161 CLR 47, 50.
74 (1992) 175 CLR 453; see also discussion above, 448–449.
75 Victoria v Commonwealth (1937) 58 CLR 618, 630 ('The Kakiriki’).
76 See, eg, Telstra Corporation Ltd v Worthing (1999) 197 CLR 61, 76.
77 (1937) 58 CLR 618, 630 (emphasis added).
78 Ibid 630–1. In Dickson [2010] HCA 30 the Court looked to what the Commonwealth law ‘deliberately excluded’ [22] (emphasis added) and ‘designedly left’ [25] (emphasis added) ‘as the basis for its conclusion that the State law would ‘alter, impair or detract’ from the operation of the federal legislation [30].
79 APLA Ltd v Legal Services Commissioner of New South Wales (2005) 224 CLR 322 ('APLA’).
80 Transcript of Proceedings, APLA Ltd v Legal Services Commissioner of New South Wales (High Court of Australia, Stephen Gageler, SC, 7 December 2004), 7 ('Transcript of Proceedings, APLA’); see also Lindell, above n 2, 29–30 and accompanying footnotes.
81 Transcript of Proceedings, APLA, above n 80, 3.
82 Ibid 7-8.
83 (1920) 28 CLR 129, 154.
84 Ibid 144 quoting D’Emden v Pedder 1 CLR 91, 111.
85 Ibid 156 (emphasis added).
86 Transcript of Proceedings, APLA, above n 80, 5.
87 Ibid 5.
88 APLA (2005) 224 CLR 322 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Callinan and Heydon JJ; Kirby J dissenting; McHugh J not deciding).
89 See, eg, ibid 354 (Gleeson CJ and Heydon J); 400 (Gummow J), 449 (Hayne J concurring); 424–5 (Kirby J), 489 Callinan J.
90 See references to the ‘assumptions', 354-5 (Gleeson CJ, Heydon J); ‘[the] federal milieu … assumes the continued existence of State laws regulating the conduct of the legal profession': 401 (Gummow J).
91 APLA (2005) 224 CLR 322, 489.
92 NSW v Commonwealth (1983) 151 CLR 302, 330 ('Hospital Benefits Case’).
93 APLA (2005) 224 CLR 322, 489.
94 Viskauskas v Niland (1982) 153 CLR 280.
95 The provisions are considered in Loo v DPP (Vic) (2005) 154 A Crim R 299.
96 Lindell, above n 2, 39.
97 Australasian Parliamentary Counsel's Committee, <http://www.pcc.gov.au>.
98 Office of Best Practice Regulation, Best Practice Regulation Handbook (2010) ch 4.
99 Ibid 52.
101 [2010] HCA 30. See especially ‘… close attention is necessary to the place of such a statement in the particular statutory framework …'. [36].