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Nulyarimma v Thompson: Is Genocide a Crime at Common Law in Australia?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Douglas Guilfoyle
Douglas Guilfoyle*
Affiliation:
Mallesons Stephen Jaques, Sydney
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Abstract

Australia will, I believe, ratify the convention and afterwards this Parliament will pass the necessary legislation to show other countries that we join in universal condemnation of the horror [of genocide].

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , March 2001 , pp. 1 - 36
Copyright
Copyright © 2001 The Australian National University

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References

1 Cth Parl Deb 1949, Vol 203 at 1873 per Dr Evatt.

2 ATS 1951 No. 2.

3 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [20] and [81]; M Flynn,“Genocide: it's a Crime Everywhere, but not in Australia” (2000) 29 UWALR 59 at 63.

4 Anti-Genocide Bill 1999 (Cth): introduced into the Senate and second reading adjourned 13 October 1999; Bill and related matters referred to Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee, report tabled 14 August 2000.

5 Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 ICJ Rep 15 at 23.

6 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Ah Hin Teoh (Teoh) (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J, at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J, at 87 per Toohey J; and note Parlement Belge (1879) 4 PD 129; (1880) 5 PD 197.

7 Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1982) 153 CLR 168 at 203-4 per Gibbs CJ; A Mason, “International law as a source of domestic law” in B R Opeskin and D R Rothwell (eds), International Law and Australian Federalism (1997) 210 at 213 and 220; cf L Erades, Interaction between International and Municipal Law: a Comparative Case Law Study (1993) at 859.

8 I Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (5th ed 1998) at 42; M N Shaw, International Law (4th ed 1997) at 105-110; D J Harris, Cases And Materials On International Law (5th ed 1998) at 74-83; D W Greig, International Law (2nd ed 1976) at 57; F A Mann, Foreign Affairs in English Courts (1986) at 121; L Erades, above n7 at 665, 883-4; the phrasing is adopted from: Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 43 per Brennan J.

9 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [54] per Whitlam J.

10 Ibid at [53] per Whitlam J.

11 Polites v The Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 68 per Latham CJ, at 74 per Rich J, at 77 per Dixon J, at 79 per McTiernan J, and at 81 per Williams J; Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J, and at 87-8 per Toohey J; Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 287-8 per Mason CJ and Deane J, and at 315 per McHugh J (only in the case of actual ambiguity).

12 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [163]-[165] per Merkel J; see also 5.3.3, below.

13 See 5.3.4, below.

14 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621.

15 Brownlie above n 8; Statute of the International Court of Justice, ATS 1945 No. 1, Article 38(1).

16 Ibid at 4-11; Shaw above n 8 at 58-59 and 67.

17 Shaw above n 8 at 59-61; Brownlie above n 8 at 5-7.

18 Ibid at 58 and 68-70; Brownlie above n 8 at 5-11.

19 Ibid at 65; cf Brownlie above n 8 at 5; I A Shearer, Starke's International Law (11th ed 1994) at 32-4; for an example of awareness of this in the federal Parliament see: Cth Parl Deb 1949, Vol 203 at 1873 per Dame Enid Lyons.

20 Brownlie above n 8 at 7; cf Burmester, GH, “Ascertaining International Human Rights Rules and Standards in DomesticCourts: War Crimes and Other Examples” in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 311 at 315Google Scholar.

21 H Charlesworth, “Customary International Law and the Nicaragua Case“ (1984-7) 11 Australian Yearbook of International Law 1 at 24; cf Burmester above n 20 at 315.

22 Ibid at 12; Shaw above n 8 at 75-6.

23 Ibid; Shaw above n 8 at 75.

24 M Dixon and R McCorquodale, Cases and Materials on International Law (3rd edn 2000) at 44; Shaw above n 8 at 96; cf R Jennings and A Watts (eds) Oppenheim's International Law Volume I Peace: Indtroduction and Part I (9th edn 1992) at 26; though note contra Brownlie above n 8 at 4.

25 Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 ICJRep 15 at 23; T Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Custom (1989) at 11; A Cassese, Human Rights in a Changing World (1990) at 78.

26 Brownlie above n 8 at 517; H Steiner and P Alston, International Human Rights in Context: Law Politics Morals (1996) at 133 and 145-7; L Hannikainen, Peremptory Norms (Jus Cogens) in International Law: Historical Development Criteria Present Status (1988) at 456ff; L Sunga, The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation (1997) at 115, 117 and 246; Meron above n 25 at 11 fn 17; P Mathew, “International Law and the protection of Human Rights in Australia” (1995) 17 SydLR 177 at 179 and fn 9; Shearer above n 19 at 49; D J Harris above n 8 at 836-7.

27 Brownlie above n 8 at 515-6; Shaw above n 8 at 97-98; I Detter, The International Legal Order (1994) at 174; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, ATS 1974 No. 2, Articles 53 and 64.

28 General Assembly Resolution 96 (1), 11 December 1946; noted in the preamble to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2; see Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277 at 296-7; cf approach of the International Court of Justice in Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United states of America) (Merits) (1986) ICJ Rep 14 at paras 193, 202, 203 and 205.

29 Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 ICJ Rep 15 at 23.

30 Barcelona Traction Light and Power Co Ltd Case (Second Phase) 1970 ICJ Rep 3 at 32; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua Case 1986 ICJ Rep 3 at 134-7.

31 Ibid.

32 Meron above n 25 at 191-5; Cassese above n 25 at 78.

33 Ibid at 194; A Mitchell, “Genocide, Human Rights Implementation and the Relationship between International and Domestic Law: Nulyarimma v Thompson“ (2000) 24 MULR 15 at 20.

34 Brownlie above n 8 at 515; Shaw above n 8 at 96; cf Sunga above n 26 at 115; Cassese above n 25 at 79; Meron above n 25 at 194.

35 Ibid at 517; Steiner and Alston above n 26 145-7; Hannikainen above n 26 at 456ff; L Sunga above n 26 at 115, 117 and 246; Meron above n 25 at 11 fn 17; Mathew above n 26 at 179 and fn 9; Shearer above n 19 at 49; Harris above n 26 at 836-7.

36 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [18] per Wilcox J. On some of the difficulties in proposing that genocide was a crime except where connected with a war crime before 1946 see: Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 587 per Brennan J and 676 per Toohey J.

37 Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 ICJ Rep 15 at 23.

38 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2; note the acceptance of this proposition domestically: Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [18] per Wilcox J, [36] and [57] per Whitlam J and at [78] and [140]-[141] per Merkel J.

39 ICTR: Prosecutor v Ayesku 37 ILM 1399 (1998) at 1406.

40 Cassese above n 25 at 76; ICTR: Prosecutor v Ayesku 37 ILM 1399 (1998) at 1406-7.

41 Brownlie above n 8 at 14.

42 Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) (1986) ICJ Rep 14.

43 Charlesworth above n 21 at 18; Ibid at paras 193, 202, 203, 204 and 205.

44 Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) (1986) ICJ Rep 14 at para 189.

45 Charlesworth above n 21 at 24; Burmester above n 20 at 315.

46 Ibid at 24 and 26-8.

47 Ibid at 10, 22 and 28.

48 United Nations Security Council Resolution 955 Establishing the International Tribunal for Rwanda November 8 1994, 33 ILM 1598 (1994), Article 2 (at 1602) and note Article 6 (at 1604- 5); United Nations Security Council Resolution 827 on Establishing an International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia, 25 May 1993, 32 ILM 1203 (1993) adopting United Nations Secretary-General's Report on Aspects of Establishing an International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia, 32 ILM 1159 (1993), Article 4 (at 1193) and Article 7 (at 1194).

49 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 37 ILM 999 (1998), Article 6 (at 1004), note also Article 25(3)(e) (at 1016) and Article 5(1)(a) (at 1003); not yet in force.

50 The United Nations, Department of Public Information, Setting the Record Straight: The International Criminal Court, http://www.un.org/News/facts/iccfact.htm.

51 Hannikainen above n 26 at 460-2; Meron above n 32 at 11; Steiner and Alston above n 26 at 1049-50.

52 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2, Article 6.

53 Steiner and Alston above n 26 at 99-100 and 1024-5, quoting Restatement (Third) Foreign Relations Law of the United States s 404; M Wenig, “Enforcing the Lessons of History: Israel Judges the Holocaust” in T McCormick and G Simpson (eds), The Law of War Crimes: National and International Approaches (1997) 103 at 107; L Beres, “Genocide and Genocide- Like Crimes” in M Bassiouni (ed), International Criminal Law: Volume I Crimes (1986) 271 at 274-6; M Bassiouni, “Introduction to the Genocide Convention” in M Bassiouni (ed), International Criminal Law: Volume I Crimes (1986) 281 at 286; Shaw above n 8 at 472 but cf at 473; cf Brownlie above n 8 at 46-7; note also discussion in Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 562-76 per Brennan J and 661-3 per Toohey J.

54 Anti-Genocide Bill 1999 (Cth): introduced into the Senate and second reading adjourned 13 October 1999; Bill and related matters referred to Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee, report tabled 14 August 2000.

55 The origins of the policy of prior enactment of implementing legislation can be seen in: D Williams, “Australia's Treaty-Making Procedures: The Coalition's Reform Proposals” in P Alston and M Chiam (eds), Treaty-Making and Australia: Globalisation versus Sovereignty? (1995) 185 at 194.

56 Sen Deb 1974, Vol 61 at 965 per Senator Willesee.

57 Mitchell above n 33 at 22; A Mitchell, H Charlesworth, R McCorquodale and P Mathew, Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee: inquiry into Anti-Genocide Bill 1999 Submission no. 26, 18.2.2000, at 7-8 referring to Memorandum for the Secretary, Department of External Affairs from G A Watson, Acting Secretary, Attorney General's Department, Canberra, Ref 47/740, 6 April 1949.

58 Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, A Review of Australia's Efforts to Promote and Protect Human Rights (1992) at 32; Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, A Review of Australia's Efforts to Promote and Protect Human Rights (1994) at 26; Senate Legal and Constitutional Committee, Humanity Diminished: The Crime of Genocide (2000) at [3.46].

59 Brownlie above n 8 at 515-6; Shaw above n 8 at 97-98; Detter above n 27 at 174; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, ATS 1974 No. 2, Articles 53 and 64.

60 Erades above n 7 at 665.

61 K Walker, “Treaties and the Internationalisation of Australian Law” in C Saunders (ed), Courts of Final Jurisdiction: The Mason Court in Australia (1996) 204 at 231; Shaw above n 8 at 106ff.

62 Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (reprinted 1982), Book 4, at 67.

63 The logical circularity of the last category is noted in: Mitchell above n 33 at 27.

64 Ibid at 26-7; or “weak incorporation” per Walker above n 61 at 231.

65 On the doctrines as expressions of the monism and dualism theories of the relation between international and domestic law, see: Mitchell above n 33 at 26; I A Shearer, “The relation between international law and domestic law” in B R Opeskin and D R Rothwell (eds), International Law and Australian Federalism (1997) 34 at 36; Shaw above n 8 at 105.

66 Brownlie above n 8 at 46-7; Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 298 per Toohey J.

67 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J and at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87 per Toohey J; and note Parlement Belge (1879) 4 PD 129; (1880) 5 PD 197.

68 Donaghue, S “Balancing Sovereignty and International Law: the Domestic Impact of International Law in Australia” (1995) 17 Adel LR 213 at 224-6 and 261Google Scholar; Kirby, M, “The Australian use of international human rights norms: From Bangalore to Balliol – a view from the antipodes” (1993) 16 UNSWLJ 363 at 369Google Scholar.

69 Ibid; and note G Winterton “Limits to the Use of the 'Treaty Power'” in P Alston and M Chiam (eds), Treaty-Making and Australia: Globalisation versus Sovereignty? (1995) 29 at 34.

70 Donaghue above n 68 at 261; Charlesworth above n 21 at 3-4; Brownlie above n 8 at 10; cf Jennings and Watts above n 24 at 29.

71 Donaghue above n 68 at 261.

72 Shaw above n 8 at 96; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 44; cf Jennings and Watts above n 24 at 26; though note Brownlie above n 8 at 4.

73 Donaghue above n 68 at 261.

74 Note Merkel J's conclusion as to the relation between jus cogens and statutory immunities conferred on members of Parliament: Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [193], cf [181].

75 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J and at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87 per Toohey J.

76 Donaghue above n 68 at 214; Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 569 per Stephenson LJ; Mann above n 8 at 124; G Triggs, “Customary international law and Australian law” in M Ellinghaus, A Bradbrook and A Duggan, The Emergence of Australian Law (1989) at 384.

77 Crawford, J Edeson, W, “International Law and Australian Law” in K Ryan (ed) International Law and Australian Law (2nd end 1985) 71 at 73Google Scholar.

78 Ibid; Shearer above n 65 at 42; Mitchell above n 33 at 27; Triggs above n 76 at 382-3; Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 567 per Stephenson LJ.

79 Erades above n 7 at 858.

80 Ibid at 859.

81 Shaw above n 8 at 108 (emphasis added).

82 Note: Brownlie above n 8 at 44; Triggs above n 76 at 384-5; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 121.

83 Brownlie above n 8 at 41; Mann above n 8 at 125-8; Burmester above n 20 at 312-3.

84 Burmester above n 20 at 312-5.

85 Ibid at 315.

86 Ibid at 316-7.

87 Ibid at 314; cf International Tin Council Case [1990] 2 AC 418 at 513 per Lord Oliver.

88 Shaw above n 8 at 108; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 121; cf Burmester above n 20 at 314-5.

89 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J and at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87 per Toohey J; and note Parlement Belge (1879) 4 PD 129; (1880) 5 PD 197.

90 Donaghue above n 68 at 261.

91 Chow Hung Ching v The King (1949) 77 CLR 449 at 477; Kirby above n 68 at 368; Donaghue above n 68 at 264-5; M Allars, “International law and administrative discretion” in B R Opeskin and D R Rothwell (eds), International Law and Australian Federalism (1997) 232 at 238; Shearer above n 65 at 40 fn 25 and 49-50; Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [131] per Merkel J; Commonwealth v Yarmirr [1999] FCA 1668; (1999) 168 ALR 426; at [426]-[427] per Merkel J.

92 Crawford and Edeson above n 77 at 73.

93 Mason above n 7 at 214.

94 Ibid at 216; Triggs above n 76 at 384.

95 Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Harris above n 8 at 74-83; Greig above n 8 at 57; Mann above n 76 at 121; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4.

96 (1764) 3 Burr. 1478 at 1481 per Mansfield CJ citing the dicta of Talbot LC in Barbuit's Case (1737) Forr. 280, 25 ER 77.

97 Blackstone above n 62 at 67.

98 Shaw above n 8 at 108; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 121; cf Burmester above n 20 at 314-5.

99 West Rand Central Gold Mining Company Limited v The King [1905] 2 KB 391.

100 Ibid at 407.

101 Ibid at 404-406.

102 Ibid at 408.

103 Chung Chi Cheung v The King [1939] AC 160.

104 In contrast to the Courts of Admiralty, which historically applied international law directly without creating new rules of domestic law: Erades above n 7 at 664.

105 Chung Chi Cheung v The King [1939] AC 160 at 167-168 (emphasis added).

106 Brownlie above n 8 at 42; and note: Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Harris above n 8 at 74-83; Greig above n 8 at 57; Mann above n 76 at 121; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4.

107 Crawford and Edeson above n 77 at 73.

108 In Re Piracy Jure Gentium [1934] AC 586; cf the advertence to universal jurisdiction in Companhia de Mocambique v British South Africa Co (1892) 2 QB 358 at 395 per Lord Esher MR.

109 Ibid.

110 Ibid at 589.

111 Ibid at 589 and cf 595.

112 Ibid at 594.

113 Note: ibid at 593.

114 Ibid at 593 and 597.

115 Shearer above n 65 at 40.

116 Brownlie above n 8 at 43; Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 553-4 per Lord Denning MR; Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [83], [88], [89] and [99] per Merkel J.

117 Brownlie above n 8 at 44; Shaw above n 8 at 106-7; Greig above n 8 at 57.

118 [1977] 1 QB 529.

119 R v Secretary of state for the Home Department Ex parte Thakar [1964] QB 684 at 701.

120 Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 554.

121 Ibid at 557-8.

122 Ibid at 558.

123 Ibid at 570-2.

124 Mann above n 76 at 124-5.

125 Spigelmen, J, “Rule of Law – Human Rights Protection” (1999) 18 Aust Bar Rev 29 at 30-31Google Scholar, and passim on the impact of English law's reception of the European Convention on Human Rights 1950; cf Buxton, R, “The Human Rights Act and Private Law” (2000) 116 LQR 48Google Scholar; on the impact upon common law, see for example: Lester, A, “The Impact of Europe on the English Constitution” (1992) 3 PLR 228 at 237-41Google Scholar.

126 Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J.

127 Kidd, J, “Can International Law Protect Our Civil Rights? The Australian and English Experience Compared” (1995) UQLJ 305 at 314Google Scholar.

128 Lester above n 125 at 231ff; cf on the influence of international decisions and standards: R Nicholson, “A Profound Change to United Kingdom Law: Domestic Application of the European Convention on Human Rights” (1998) 72 ALJ 946 at 954; M Kirby, “The Role of International Standards in Australian Courts” in P Alston, and M Chiam (eds), Treaty- Making and Australia: Globalisation versus Sovereignty? (1995) 81 at 86.

129 Perry, J, “At the intersection – Australian and international law” (1997) 71 ALJ 841 at 841Google Scholar;Mason above n 7 at 210; on human rights in particular note: Kirby, M, “Implications of the Internationalisation of Human Rights Law” in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 276 at 297-8Google Scholar; Duffy, M, “The Internationalisation of Human Rights” in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 299 at 299-301Google Scholar; M Kirby above n 128 at 86; Crawford, J, “International Law and Australian Federalism: Past, Present and Future” in B R Opeskin and D R Rothwell (eds), International Law and Australian Federalism (1997) 330 at 332Google Scholar.

130 Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 557-8 per Lord Denning MR and at 570-1 per Stephenson J.

131 [1977] 1 QB 529.

132 [1990] 2 AC 418.

133 Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4; Mann above n 8 at 121.

134 (1949) 77 CLR 449.

135 Ibid at 487-8 per McTiernan J and at 488-9 per Williams J.

136 Ibid at 471; and note the discussion at 4.2.2.

137 Ibid at 462 (footnotes omitted).

138 Ibid at 462-5; on these authorities see: Shaw above n 8 at 107-8; though note Mason, A, “Influence of International and Transnational Law on Australian Municipal Law” (1996) 7 PLR 20 at 24Google Scholar.

139 Chow Hung Ching v The King (1949) 77 CLR 449 at 477.

140 LJ Brierly, “International Law in England” (1935) 51 LQR 24.

141 Ibid at 31.

142 Chow Hung Ching v The King (1949) 77 CLR 449 at 462, quoting Sir William Holdsworth “Relation of English Law to International Law” Essays in Law and History, at 267.

143 Donaghue above n 68 at 265.

144 Mason above n 138 at 24.

145 Donaghue above n 68 at 265; Crawford and Edeson above n 77 at 73.

146 Brownlie above n 8 at 44; Shaw above n 8 at 106-7; Greig above n 8 at 57; see also: Donaghue above n 68 at 264 and fn 234.

147 Polites v Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 72 per Latham CJ.

148 Ibid at 80-1.

149 Ibid at 81.

150 Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1.

151 (1975) 135 CLR 337.

152 Seas and Submerged Lands Case (1975) 135 CLR 337 at 407.

153 Ibid at 465-6.

154 Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529.

155 Seas and Submerged Lands Case (1975) 135 CLR 337 at 496.

156 Ibid at 500-1.

157 (1977) 138 CLR 346 at 394-5.

158 Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1982) 153 CLR 168 at 203-4 per Gibbs CJ.

159 Mason above n 7 at 213 and 220; the point was not even raised directly in the Kruger Case: Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 88 per Toohey J.

160 Polites v The Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 68 per Latham CJ, at 74 per Rich J, at 77 per Dixon J, at 79 per McTiernan J and at 81 per Williams J; Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87-8 per Toohey J; Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 287-8 per Mason CJ and Deane J and at 315 per McHugh J.

161 Applicant A v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1997) 190 CLR 225 at 230-1 per Brennan CJ.

162 Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273; this decision has been contentious and the subject of Commonwealth legislative attempts to over-turn it: Donaghue above n 68 at 258; Mathew above n 26 at 203; Crawford above n 129 at 335-6; D Rothwell, “Quasi-Incorporation of International Law in Australia: Broadcasting Standards, Cultural Sovereignty and International Trade” (1999) 27 F L Rev 527 at 529.

163 Project Blue Sky v Australian Broadcasting Authority (1998) 194 CLR 355 passim, but note 391-2 per McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ.

164 See, for example: Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 140 per Mason CJ, at 154 per Brennan J and at 211 per Gaudron J.

165 Allars above n 91 at 245.

166 Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J.

167 Mathew above n 26 at 195; Donaghue above n 68 at 265 fn 236.

168 Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) CLR 1 at 42.

169 See 4.7 and 7, below.

170 Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J; Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 321 per Brennan J; Kirby J had earlier articulated this conception of treaty law as an influence on judicial law making: Jago v District Court of New South Wales (1988) 12 NSWLR 558 at 569 per Kirby P.

171 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J and at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87 per Toohey J.

172 Mathew above n 26 at 196-7; Kirby above n 68 at 369; Allars above n 91 at 238.

173 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J.

174 Jago v District Court of New South Wales (1988) 12 NSWLR 558 at 569 per Kirby P.

175 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 per at 360 per Toohey J.

176 Harry v Mental Health Review Tribunal (1994) 33 NSWLR 315 at 323 per Kirby P; Jago v District Court of New South Wales (1988) 12 NSWLR 558 at 569 per Kirby P; M Kirby above n 68 at 374; Kirby, M, “Implications of the Internationalisation of Human Rights Law” in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994), 276 at 288 and 297Google Scholar; and see I Shearer, A, “International Legal Notes” (1995) 69 ALJ 404 at 405Google Scholar quoting Kirby J; A Mason above n 7 at 223 and fn 84.

177 Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 315 per McHugh J; Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J, cf Dawson J at 349 and Toohey J at 360.

178 Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 288 per Mason CJ and Deane J, cf 304 per Gaudron J (concurring with Mason CJ and Deane J).

179 Ibid at 315 per McHugh J.

180 (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 70-1 per Dawson J and at 88 per Toohey J.

181 Ibid, and see also at 159 per Gummow J.

182 Mathew above n 26 at 196-7; M Kirby above n 68 at 369; Allars above n 91 at 238.

183 Henkin, L, “The Constitution and US Sovereignty: a Century of Chinese Exclusion and its Progeny” (1987) 100 Harv LR 853 at 866CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Glennon, M, “Raising the Paquete Habana: is Violation of Customary International Law by the Executive Unconstitutional?” (1985) North Western U Law Rev 321 at 345 and 347Google Scholar.

184 The Paquete Habana 175 US 677, 700 (1900).

185 First National City Bank v Banco Para et Comerico Exterior 426 US 611, 623 (1983); Banco Nacional v Sabatino 376 US 398, 423 (1964); Skirotes v Florida 313 US 69, 72-73 (1941); Berizzi Bros Co v SS Pesaro 271 US 562 (1926); cf Filartiga v Pena Irala 630 F 2d 876, 887 (2d Cir 1980).

186 Shaw above n 8 at 114-5; Erades above n 7 at 859; Editorial Comment: “Is the President Above Customary International Law?” (1992) 86 AJIL 757 at 760; Henkin above n 183 at 867 and 874-6; L Henkin, “International Law as Law in the US” (1984) 82 Michigan L Rev 1555 at 1555; Glennon above n 183 passim; Goldklang, M, “Back on Board the Paquete Habana: Resolving the Conflicts between Statutes and Customary International Law” (1984) 25 Virg J of Int Law 143 passim but note 144-7Google Scholar.

187 The Constitution of the United States of America, Article I, section 8.

188 C Maxwell and A Bayefsky, “The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and Public International Law” (1983) 61 Canadian Bar Rev 265 at 277-80; D Woloshyn, “To What Extent can Canadian Courts be Expected to Enforce International Human Rights in Civil Litigation?” (1985-6) 50 Sask Law Rev 1 at 8; Erades above n 7 at 577-8 and 862; Shearer above n 65 at 40; Foreign Legations Case [1943] SCR 20 at 208, 214, 230-1 per Duff CJ and 232- 3 per Rinfret J.

189 Reference as to Powers to Levy Rates on Foreign Legations and High-Commissioner' Residences [1943] SCR 208 at 214, 230-1 per Duff CJ and 232 per Rinfret J.

190 Reference re Exemption of US Forces from Canadian Criminal Law [1943] 4 DLR 11 at 41 per Taschereau J.

191 Maxwell and Bayefsky above n 188 at 279.

192 Re Alberta Provincial Employees and The Crown (1980) 120 DLR (3d) 590 at 620-1 per Sinclair CJQB.

193 Butler, S Butler, P, “The Judicial Use of International Human Rights Law in New Zealand” (1999) 29 U of Wellington L Rev 173 at 177Google Scholar.

194 Marine Steel Ltd v Government of the Marshall Islands [1981] 2 NZLR 1 at 4, 8 and 9 per Barker J; Governor of Pitcairn Island v Sutton [1995] 1 NZLR 426 at 436 per Richardson J.

195 Shaw above n 8 at 120-1 and at 120 fn 117; Brownlie above n 8 at 42-7 and 49-51.

196 Mason above n 138 at 24; Donaghue above n 68 at 263; Perry above n 129 at 842; Crawford and Edeson above n 77 at 71; Triggs above n 76 at 377.

197 Mathew above n 26 at 195; note for example the elisions between treaty and custom evident in Kirby above n 68 at 368-72.

198 Chow Hung Ching v The King (1949) 77 CLR 449; Polites v The Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60; and cf Bosner v La Macchia (1970) 122 CLR 177.

199 Mason above n 138 at 24; S Donaghue above n 68 at 264.

200 Donaghue above n 68 at 264.

201 Kirby above n 68 at 368; Donaghue above n 68 at 264-5; Allars above n 91 at 238; Shearer above n 65 at 40 fn 25 and 49-50; Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [131] per Merkel J; Commonwealth v Yarmirr [1999] FCA 1668; (1999) 168 ALR 426; at [426] and [457] per Merkel J.

202 Donaghue above n 68 at 245; Kirby above n 68 at 391; Mathew above n 26 at 197 and 200; S Bouwhuis, “International law by the back door?” (1998) 72 ALJ 794 at 796-7; Perry above n 129 at 848-9.

203 Donaghue above n 68 at 267.

204 Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Harris above n 8 at 74-83; Greig above n 8 at 57; Mann above n 76 at 121; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4.

205 Donaghue above n 68 at 261; cf Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 288 per Mason CJ and Deane J.

206 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192 at [18] per Wilcox J; at [36] and [57] per Whitlam J; and at [78] and [140]-[141] per Merkel J; cf Brownlie above n 8 at 517; Steiner and Alston above n 26 at 133 and 145-7; Hannikainen above n 26 at 456ff; Sunga above n 26 at 115, 117 and 246; Meron above n 25 at 11 fn 17; Mathew above n 26 at 179 and fn 9; Shearer above n 19 at 49; Harris above n 26 at 836-7.

207 Donaghue above n 68 at 261; and see Part 3.

208 Brownlie above n 8 at 515-6; Shaw above n 8 at 97-98; Detter above n 27 at 174; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, ATS 1974 No. 2, Articles 53 and 64.

209 Note: Kirby above n 68 at 377; Mathew above n 26 at 181 and 201.

210 Perry above n 129 at 846-7; Bouwhuis above n 202 at 797.

211 Mathew above n 26 at 194; Kirby above n 68 at 371-2.

212 Ibid at 195.

213 Ibid; cf Donaghue above n 68 at 214.

214 Allars above n 91 at 245ff.

215 Donaghue above n 68 at 266.

216 Ibid.

217 Mason above n 7 at 219.

218 See: Allars above n 91 at 239.

219 Nulyarimma v Thompson (1999) 165 ALR 621 at 621 (headnote); cf Flynn above n 3 at 63-65; S Peters, “The Genocide Case: Nulyarimma v Thompson“ [1999] AILR 233 at 233-4; Mitchell above n 33 at 24.

220 Ibid.

221 Ibid.

222 Ibid.

223 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [32]-[34] per Wilcox J, [59] per Whitlam J, and [235] per Merkel J; note Peters above n 219 at 242-3.

224 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 119; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [32] per Wilcox J, [59] per Whitlam J.

225 Ibid at [186], [193]-[198], [207], [224] and especially [233] and [234] per Merkel J.

226 Ibid at [18] per Wilcox J; at [36] and [57] per Whitlam J; and at [78] and [140]–[141] per Merkel J.

227 Ibid at [20].

228 Ibid at [23].

229 Ibid; compare Mason above n 7 at 213.

230 R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No 3) (Pinochet (No3)) [1999] 2 All ER 97.

231 Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277.

232 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [36] - [44].

233 Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 576.

234 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [52].

235 Mitchell above n 33 at 33.

236 Ibid.

237 Ibid.

238 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [24].

239 Ibid at [26].

240 Ibid.

241 See for example the discussion in: Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 687-90 per Toohey J.

242 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [27].

243 Ibid at [18] per Wilcox J.

244 See: Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 556 per Brennan J.

245 Brownlie above n 8 at 42.

246 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [26]-[27]; cf Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277 at 282.

247 Ibid at [54].

248 Ibid at [163]-[165].

249 Ibid at [163].

250 Ibid at [163].

251 Polites v Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 68 per Latham CJ, at 74 per Rich J, at 77 per Dixon J, at 79 per McTiernan J and at 81 per Williams J; Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1 71 per Dawson J and at 87-8 per Toohey J; Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 287-8 per Mason CJ and Deane J and at 315 per McHugh J (only in the case of actual ambiguity).

252 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2, Articles 1 and 5.

253 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [57].

254 [1973] AC 435.

255 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [53].

256 Knuller v Director of Public Prosecutions [1973] AC 435 at 436 (headnote).

257 Shaw v Director of Public Prosecutions [1962] AC 220.

258 Knuller v Director of Public Prosecutions [1973] AC 435 at 457-8 per Lord Reid, 464-5 per Lord Morris, 490 per Lord Simon, and 496 per Lord Kilbrandon.

259 Ibid.

260 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [167].

261 Ibid at [176].

262 Ibid at [177].

263 Ibid at [178].

264 Ibid at [179].

265 Ibid at [83]; note also at [88], [89] and [99].

266 Westland Ltd v Arab Organsiation for Industrialisation [1995] 2 QB 282.

267 International Tin Council Case [1990] 2 AC 418.

268 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [108].

269 Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4; Donaghue above n 68 at 260.

270 Westland Ltd v Arab Organsiation for Industrialisation [1995] 2 QB 282 at 307-8 and 310; International Tin Council Case [1990] 2 AC 418 at 512 per Lord Oliver.

271 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [113] and [117].

272 R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate ex parte Pinochet Ugarte [1998] 3 WLR 1456.

273 Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97.

274 Fox, H, “The Pinochet Case No. 3”, (1999) 48 Int and Comp Law Q 687 at 687Google Scholar.

275 Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 102-4 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson.

276 Ibid.

277 C Warbrick, “Extradition Law Aspects of Pinochet 3” 48 Int and Comp Law Q 958 at 959-960; Fox above n 274 at 687.

278 Fox above n 274 at 701.

279 Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 114 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson, at 166 per Lord Hutton, at 169 per Lord Saville, at 179 per Lord Millet and at 189-190 per Lord Phillips.

280 Ibid and at 152 per Lord Hope, when torture is on the scale of a “serious international crime”.

281 Warbrick above n 277 at 960-3; note Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 105-7 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson.

282 Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 103 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson.

283 Hopkins, J, “Former Head of Foreign State – Extradition – Immunity” (1999) 58 Camb LJ 461 at 461-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fox above n 274 at 690 (though Fox first cites the date 1998, this is clearly a misprint); s 134 Criminal Justice Act, 1988 (UK) implementing the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1984, ATS 1989 No. 21.

284 Fox above n 274 at 689.

285 Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 175-8.

286 Burmester above n 20 at 316-7.

287 Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 108-9 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson, at 152 per Lord Hope, at 164 per Lord Hutton and at 190 per Lord Phillips; cf 178 per Lord Millett.

288 Ibid at 114 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson, at 121 per Lord Goff, at 164 per Lord Hutton and

at 188-9 per Lord Phillips.

289 Ibid at 155 per Lord Hutton, at 177 per Lord Millet (and note his reference to Re Piracy Jure Gentium at 180) and at 185 per Lord Phillips.

290 Brownlie above n 8 at 44; Triggs above n 76 at 384-5; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 121.

291 Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER at 114 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson, at 121 per Lord Goff, at 164 per Lord Hutton and at 188-9 per Lord Phillips.

292 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [101], though note [133].

293 Ibid at [126], [129] and [132].

294 Ibid at [125]-[126] and [132].

295 Chow Hung Ching v The King (1949) 77 CLR 449 at 487-8 per McTiernan J.

296 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [131].

297 Unless otherwise noted, quotations in (1) to (6) are drawn from: ibid at [132] per Merkel J.

298 [1938] AC 485.

299 The same analysis appears in: Flynn above n 3 at 63-65.

300 Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 554; cf Mann above n 76 at 124-5.

301 Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277 at 288 and 296-7; Bassiouni above n 53 at 285.

302 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [148]-[150].

303 Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277 at 280, quoting in part Shimshon Palestine Portland Cement Factory Ltd v The Attorney General (1950) 17 ILR 72 per Dinkleblum J, and also referring to West Rand Central Gold Mining Company Limited v The King [1905] 2 KB 391 and The Cristina [1938] AC 485.

304 Ibid at 292 (emphasis added).

305 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [160].

306 Ibid at [138]-[139].

307 Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [181].

308 Ibid at [183].

309 Ibid at [184].

310 Ibid at [193].

311 Ibid.

312 Sumner v United Kingdom [1999] SASC 456 at [31]-[32] per Nyland J; Sumner v United Kingdom [1999] SASC 462 at [50]; Thorpe v Kennett [1999] VSC 442 at [46] per Warren J; Buzzacott v Gray [1999] FCA 1525 at [31] and [32] per Von Doussa J; Buzzacott v Morgan (Butterworths Unreported Judgment 1901600); for discussion of some of these cases see: Mitchell above n 33 at 43-4.

313 Mitchell above n 33 at 44-6; Anti-Genocide Bill 1999 (Cth); see Part 2.

314 Galligan, B, “Australia's Political Culture and Institutional Design” in P Alston (ed), Towardsan Australian Bill of Rights (1994), 55 at 58Google Scholar.

315 Charlesworth, H, “The Australian Reluctance About Rights” in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 21 at 21-2Google Scholar.

316 Burmester above n 20 at 322-3.

317 Charlesworth above n 315 at 48.

318 Ibid at 27.

319 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292.

320 Ibid at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J and at 360 per Toohey J.

321 Ibid at 349.

322 Ibid at 319-321.

323 Ibid at 337.

324 Ibid 373.

325 Ibid at 311 per Mason CJ and McHugh J, at 337 per Deane J, at 362 per Toohey J and at 374

per Gaudron J; though note Mathew above n 26 at 196.

326 On the change in legal aid priorities see: S Bronitt, and M Ayers, “Criminal Law and Human Rights” in D Kinley (ed), Human Rights in Australian Law : Principles Practice and Potential (1998) 120 at 122.

327 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 307.

328 P Alston, “An Australian Bill of Rights: By Design or Default?” in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 1 at 13.

329 Ibid; Charlesworth above n 315 at 23; Galligan above n 314 at 56 and 65-6.

330 Charlesworth above n 315 at 34.

331 Ibid.

332 Ibid at 36-8; Rothwell above n 162 at 527.

333 Charlesworth above n 315 at 26, 32, 33 and 35; Alston above n 328 at 3-4; Kirby above n 176 at 290; Human Rights (Mandatory Sentencing of Juvenile Offenders) Bill 1999, Bills Digest No. 62 1999-2000, Parliamentary Library, http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/bd/1999- 2000/2000bd062.htm, at “Caveats”; Donaghue above n 68 at 260; Crawford above n 129 at 331.

334 Alston above n 328 at 4 and 16; Crawford above n 129 at 331; cf Downer, Alexander, Minister for Foreign Affairs, “Media Release: Government to Review UN Treaty Committees”, 30 March 2000, http://www.dfat.gov.au/media/releases/downer/ fa024_2000.html.

335 Mathew above n 26 at 195.

336 Charlesworth above n 315 at 27.

337 Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 288 per Mason CJ and Deane J.

338 Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 513 at 657.

339 Mathew above n 26 at 195.

340 Alston above n 328 at 7.

341 Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 41-42 per Brennan J; cf Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 288 per Mason CJ and Deane J and 304 per Gaudron J (concurring).

342 Articles 5, 6 and 7, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2; cf Flynn above n 3 at 74-5.

343 Extradition Act 1988 (Cth), s 19(2)(c); cf Flynn above n 3 at 74 fn 70.

344 Flynn above n 3 at 74.

345 Ibid at 78.

346 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, Articles 5 and 6.

347 See Part 2.

348 Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Harris above n 8 at 74-83; Greig above n 8 at 57; Mann above n 8 at 121; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4.

349 See 4.6, above.

350 As discussed in Parts 2 and 6.

351 Shearer above n 65 at 38; cf Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 97 and 100.

352 Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J.