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Reconceiving Judicial Office Through a Labour Law Lens

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2025

Alysia Blackham
Alysia Blackham*
Affiliation:
Melbourne Law School, University of Melbourne, Australia
*
The author can be contacted at alysia.blackham@unimelb.edu.au.
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Abstract

Judges fulfil a fundamental constitutional role in democratic systems. Most research on judges, though, focuses on the public and constitutional significance of the judicial role, not the needs of individual judges. This article applies a labour law lens to help reconceive the judicial role in a way that balances the individual and collective needs of judges with the institutional and constitutional needs of the third arm of government, drawing on comparative analysis of Australia and the United Kingdom, and examples from common law countries. I argue that, while some progress has been made towards using labour law to structure and inform judicial roles, labour law offers new insights into how judges and judicial work might be supported. This may both assist judges in their individual capacity and support the judiciary as an institution. It therefore has significance for judges as individuals and the judiciary’s fundamental constitutional role.

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Articles
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 47 , Issue 2 , June 2019 , pp. 203 - 230
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 The Author(s)

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References

Notes

1. Huddart, Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead (1909) 8 CLR 330, 357 (Griffith CJ).

2. Albert Venn Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (Macmillan, 10th ed, 1959) 60.

3. W Harrison Moore, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (Maxwell, 2nd ed, 1910) 322.

4. See further T R S Allan, Law, Liberty, and Justice: The Legal Foundations of British Constitutionalism (Oxford University Press, 1993) 282.

5. See Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 St Tr 1030, 1066 (Lord Camden CJ); Sommersett’s Case (1772) 20 St Tr 1, 82 (Lord Mansfield).

6. See, eg, Marilyn Warren, ‘From Evaluation to Improvement: A Chief Justice’s Perspective’ (2014) 4(5) Oñati Socio-Legal Series 953, 956, 957; Joe McIntyre, ‘Evaluating Judicial Performance Evaluation: A Conceptual Analysis’ (2014) 4(5) Oñati Socio-Legal Series 898, 905–8; Francseco Contini and Richard Mohr, ‘Reconciling Independence and Accountability in Judicial Systems’ (2007) 3 Utrecht Law Review 26. For further on public confidence, see Sharyn Roach Anleu and Kathy Mack, ‘The Work of the Australian Judiciary: Public and Judicial Attitudes’ (2010) 20(1) Journal of Judicial Administration 3.

7. Robert P Davidow, ‘Beyond Merit Selection: Judicial Careers through Merit Promotion’ (1981) 12 Texas Tech Law Review 851, 852; Robert P Davidow, ‘Law Student Attitudes towards Judicial Careers’ (1981) 50 University of Cincinnati Law Review 247–8.

8. Kathy Mack and Sharyn Roach Anleu, ‘The National Survey of Australian Judges: An Overview of Findings’ (2008) 18 Journal of Judicial Administration 5, 6.

9. Gar Yein Ng, ‘Judicial Performance and Experiences of Judicial Work: Findings from Socio-Legal Research by Sharyn Roach Anleu and Kathy Mack: Commentary’ (2014) 4(5) Oñati Socio-Legal Series 1041, 1045.

10. Gabrielle Appleby et al, ‘Contemporary Challenges Facing the Australian Judiciary: An Empirical Interruption’ (2018) 42(2) Melbourne University Law Review.

11. Otto Kahn-Freund, P L Davies and M R Freedland, Kahn-Freund’s Labour and the Law (Stevens, 3rd ed, 1983) 14–15, 18.

12. Ibid 17.

13. Ibid 27–8.

14. Hugh Collins, Employment Law (Oxford University Press, 2nd ed, 2010) 5.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid 19.

17. Ibid 117.

18. See, eg, the discussion of judicial incapacity in Gilham v Ministry of Justice [2018] ICR 827: in England and Wales, judges do not have an allocated number of sick days but are paid for the time in which they hold office, even in the event of incapacity: at [70]. This is substantially more generous than the statutory minima that apply to general employees.

19. Stephen Colbran, ‘Judicial Performance Evaluation: Accountability Without Compliance’ (2002) 76 Australian Law Journal 235, 244.

20. The ‘state’ is not monolithic and could in this context include the executive and/or Parliament, as the other arms of government.

21. On the separation of powers in Australia and its implications for judicial independence, see generally Anthony Mason, ‘Judicial Independence and the Separation of Powers — Some Problems Old and New’ (1990) 13 University of New South Wales Law Journal 173. In their analysis of the state as an employer, Fredman and Morris explicitly exclude consideration of the judiciary: Sandra Fredman and Gillian S Morris, The State as Employer: Labour Law in the Public Services (Mansell, 1989) 4.

22. See further John Storey, Managerial Prerogative and the Question of Control (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983).

23. See similarly Marilyn Warren, ‘Enhancing Our Self-Perception: 360-Degree Feedback for Judicial Officers’ (2011) 21 Journal of Judicial Administration 3.

24. Ng, above n 9, 1044.

25. Ibid 1045.

26. See similarly the literature on human resource management, eg, Randall S Schuler and Ian C MacMillan, ‘Gaining Competitive Advantage Through Human Resource Management Practices’ (1984) 23(3) Human Resource Management 241; Mark A Huselid, ‘The Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Turnover, Productivity, and Corporate Financial Performance’ (1995) 38(3) Academy of Management Journal 635; Marianne J Koch and Rita Gunther McGrath, ‘Improving Labor Productivity: Human Resource Management Policies Do Matter’ (1996) 17(5) Strategic Management Journal 335.

27. See similarly Brian Opeskin, ‘The Supply of Judicial Labour: Optimising a Scarce Resource in Australia’ (2017) 7(4) Oñati Socio-legal Series 847.

28. Angela Melville, ‘Evaluating Judicial Performance and Addressing Gender Bias’ (2014) 4(5) Oñati Socio-Legal Series 880, 884–8.

29. Ibid 889. See also Kate Malleson, ‘Justifying Gender Equality on the Bench: Why Difference Won’t Do’ (2003) 11(1) Feminist Legal Studies 1, 18–21.

30. Malleson, ‘Justifying Gender Equality on the Bench’, above n 29, 1.

31. In Australia, see Kathy Mack and Sharyn Roach Anleu, ‘Entering the Australian Judiciary: Gender and Court Hierarchy’ (2012) 34(3) Law & Policy 313.

32. In Appleby et al’s 2016 survey of 142 Australian judges, 53 per cent of respondents regarded judicial diversity as a challenge facing the judiciary in their jurisdiction; only 18 per cent disagreed that it was a challenge: Appleby et al, above n 10. See also Brian Opeskin, ‘The State of the Judicature: A Statistical Profile of Australian Courts and Judges’ (2013) 35 Sydney Law Review 489, 509–13; Graham Gee and Erika Rackley, ‘Introduction: Diversity and the JAC’s First Ten Years’ in Graham Gee and Erika Rackley (eds), Debating Judicial Appointments in an Age of Diversity (Routledge, 2018) 1, 6–8.

33. Cheryl A Thomas, ‘2016 UK Judicial Attitude Survey: Report of Findings Covering Salaried Judges in England & Wales Courts and UK Tribunals’ (7 February 2017) 67.

34. Cheryl A Thomas, ‘2014 UK Judicial Attitude Survey: Report of Findings Covering Salaried Judges in England & Wales Courts and UK Tribunals’ (4 February 2015) 42.

35. Opeskin, ‘The Supply of Judicial Labour’, above n 27, 863–4.

36. Collins, above n 14, 118.

37. See Lizzie Barmes, Bullying and Behavioural Conflict at Work: The Duality of Individual Rights (Oxford University Press, 2016).

38. See Hugh Collins, ‘Independent Contractors and the Challenge of Vertical Disintegration to Employment Protection Laws’ (1990) 10 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 353.

39. See Ian Ayres and John Braithwaite, Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate (Oxford University Press, 1992).

40. Margaret McMurdo, ‘A Comment on Justice Malcolm Wallis’s Paper, “Judges As Employees”’ (Paper presented at JCA Colloquium, Fremantle, 6 October 2012) <http://jca.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Judges-as-Employees_commentary.pdf>.

41. This comparison stems from a ‘problem-solving’ or sociological approach to comparative law, which examines how different legal systems have responded to similar problems: Esin Örücü, ‘Developing Comparative Law’ in Esin Örücü and David Nelken (eds), Comparative Law: A Handbook (Hart Publishing, 2007) 43, 52.

42. Though this may reflect the influence of EU law: see below n 113 and associated text.

43. McIntyre, above n 6, 901.

44. Ibid.

45. McMurdo, above n 40, 7–8.

46. H P Lee and Enid Campbell, The Australian Judiciary (Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed, 2013) 3–4.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid 6; Kate Malleson, ‘Judicial Training and Performance Appraisal: The Problem of Judicial Independence’ (1997) 60(5) The Modern Law Review 655.

49. Ulrike Schultz and Gisela Shaw, ‘Introduction: Gender and Judging: Overview and Synthesis’ in Ulrike Schultz and Gisela Shaw (eds), Gender and Judging (Hart Publishing, 2013) 1, 24.

50. Ibid.

51. Ibid 26.

52. Ng, above n 9, 1043.

53. Erika Rackley, ‘Difference in the House of Lords’ (2006) 15(2) Social and Legal Studies 163, 164.

54. Erika Rackley, ‘Rethinking Judicial Diversity’ in Ulrike Schultz and Gisela Shaw (eds), Gender and Judging (Hart Publishing, 2013) 501, 511.

55. Ibid.

56. Melville, above n 28, 883, citing Rackley, above 53, 163.

57. Erika Rackley, ‘From Arachne to Charlotte: An Imaginative Revisiting of Gilligan’s “In A Different Voice”’ (2007) 13(3) William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law 751, 774.

58. Cf Kahn-Freund, Davies and Freedland, above n 11, 14–15; Collins, above n 14, 5.

59. The Hon James Thomas, Judicial Ethics in Australia (LexisNexis Butterworths, 3rd ed, 2009) 240.

60. Colbran, above n 19, 244.

61. Warren, ‘From Evaluation to Improvement’, above n 6, 960.

62. Gerard Brennan, ‘Foreword’, in Thomas, above n 59, vii.

63. Malleson, ‘Justifying Gender Equality on the Bench’, above n 29, 18.

64. Melville, above n 28, 889.

65. Graham Gee et al, The Politics of Judicial Independence in the UK’s Changing Constitution (Cambridge University Press, 2015) 129–30.

66. Ibid 127.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid 128.

69. See Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (UK); Courts Legislation Amendment (Judicial Complaints) Act 2012 (Cth).

70. Gee et al, above n 65, 128.

71. Contini and Mohr, above n 6, 27–8.

72. Ibid.

73. Cf James Spigelman, ‘Seen to Be Done: The Principle of Open Justice’ (2000) 74 Australian Law Journal 378.

74. Rosemary Hunter, ‘Judicial Diversity and the “New” Judge’ in Hilary Sommerlad et al (eds), The Futures of Legal Education and the Legal Profession (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015) 79, 83.

75. This may be compared with parliamentary remuneration, which has been repeatedly considered in the courts. See Cunningham v Commonwealth [2016] HCA 39; Brown v West (1990) 169 CLR 195; Griffiths v The Trustees of the Parliamentary Contributory Superannuation Fund [2012] NSWCA 231.

76. See Re Governor, Goulburn Correctional Centre; Ex parte Eastman (1999) 200 CLR 322, 332 (Gleeson CJ, McHugh and Callinan JJ); Forge v Australian Securities and Investments Commission (2006) 228 CLR 45, 66 (Gleeson CJ), 141 (Heydon J); Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51, 115 (McHugh J); Spratt v Hermes (1965) 114 CLR 226, 271–2 (Windeyer J); North Australian Aboriginal Legal Aid Service Inc v Bradley (2002) 192 ALR 701, 715 [64] (Black CJ and Hely J); North Australian Aboriginal Legal Aid Service Inc v Bradley (2004) 218 CLR 146, 152 [3] (Gleeson CJ).

77. See, eg, CGU Insurance Limited v Blakeley [2016] HCA 2.

78. (2003) 215 CLR 185.

79. Ibid 208 (Gleeson CJ). See also at 306–7 (Kirby J).

80. Ibid 219 (Gleeson CJ). See also at 263 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 283–4 (McHugh J).

81. Ibid 219 (Gleeson CJ). See also at 265 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 284 (McHugh J). Cf at 304–5, 307, 308, 313 (Kirby J).

82. Ibid 265 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

83. Ibid 265 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

84. Ibid 283 (McHugh J).

85. Ibid 220 (Gleeson CJ).

86. Ibid 303 (Kirby J).

87. (2012) 206 FCR 229.

88. Ibid 240–1, 243 (Keane CJ and Lander J).

89. Ibid 239 (Keane CJ and Lander J). This refers to Chapter III of the Australian Constitution, which establishes the federal court system.

90. Ibid 239 (Keane CJ and Lander J).

91. (1995) 184 CLR 188.

92. Ibid 233.

93. Of course, this contrasts even more markedly with some continental systems, where judges are seen as ‘staff’ (and performance evaluation is therefore a tool of ‘staff management’). See Johannes Riedel, ‘Individual Evaluation of Judges in Germany’ (2014) 4(5) Oñati Socio-Legal Studies 974, 977.

94. Similar recognition in Australia may be inhibited by the absence of any third ‘worker’ category in labour and discrimination law. See also Alysia Blackham, ‘“We are all Entrepreneurs Now”: Options and New Approaches for Adapting Equality Law for the “Gig Economy”’ (2018) 34(4) International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations 413.

95. (C-393/10) [2012] ICR 955. This decision concerned the application to UK judges of the Framework Agreement on part-time work concluded on 6 June 1997 (‘the Framework Agreement on part-time work’) which appears in the Annex to Council Directive 97/81/EC of 15 December 1997 concerning the Framework Agreement on part-time work concluded by UNICE, CEEP and the ETUC ([1998] OJ L14/9), as amended by Council Directive 98/23/EC of 7 April 1998 ([1998] OJ L131/10).

96. (C-393/10) [2012] ICR 955 [41].

97. Ibid [42].

98. Ibid [44].

99. Ibid [45]–[46].

100. Ibid [47].

101. ‘Opinion of Advocate General Kokott’ (17 November 2011) O’Brien v Ministry of Justice (C-393/10) [50].

102. O’Brien v Ministry of Justice [2013] UKSC 46, [41] (‘O’Brien’).

103. Ibid [37].

104. [2000] IRLR 380.

105. Ibid [26].

106. The provisions of the Equality Act 2010 (UK) have been applied to judicial pension changes. See, eg, McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2017] UKET 2201483/2015 (16 January 2017); McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2018] UKEAT 0071/17/LA (29 January 2018); The Lord Chancellor v McCloud [2018] EWCA Civ 2844 (20 December 2018).

107. [2016] UKEAT/0087/16/LA (31 October 2016). See also Gilham v Ministry of Justice [2018] ICR 827 (‘Gilham’).

108. Gilham v Ministry of Justice [2016] UKEAT/0087/16/LA (31 October 2016) [9]–[10], [25].

109. [2013] UKSC 29 (15 May 2013) [4].

110. Gilham v Ministry of Justice [2016] UKEAT/0087/16/LA (31 October 2016) [15] (Lord Simler), quoting The President of the Methodist Conference v Preston [2013] UKSC 29 (15 May 2013) [4] (Lord Sumption).

111. Gilham v Ministry of Justice [2016] UKEAT/0087/16/LA (31 October 2016) [21].

112. Ibid [10], [22], [24].

113. Ibid [6].

114. Ibid [27].

115. Gilham [2018] ICR 827, [63].

116. Ibid [66].

117. Ibid [69].

118. Ibid [74].

119. Cf Brian Opeskin, ‘The High Cost of Judges: Reconsidering Judicial Pensions and Retirement in an Ageing Population’ (2011) 39 Federal Law Review 33. Opeskin considers the judicial life cycle from a depersonalised, statistical perspective.

120. Opened for signature 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976).

121. ILO Convention CO98 concerning the Application of the Principles of the Right to Organise and to Bargain Collectively (entered into force 18 July 1951).

122. ILO Convention CO87 concerning Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise (entered into force 4 July 1950).

123. See, eg, McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2017] UKET 2201483/2015 (16 January 2017) [60].

124. Thomas, ‘2014 UK Judicial Attitude Survey’, above n 34, 7.

125. Ibid.

126. Ibid 25.

127. Thomas, ‘2016 UK Judicial Attitude Survey’, above n 33, 37.

128. Ibid 47.

129. Ibid 37.

130. Ibid 37. See also Cheryl A Thomas, ‘2016 UK Judicial Attitude Survey Report of Findings Covering Salaried Judges in Scotland’ (Report, UCL Judicial Institute, 23 October 2016) 14, 15.

131. Thomas, ‘2016 UK Judicial Attitude Survey’, above n 33, 13.

132. Ibid 22. This question was not asked in 2014.

133. Mack and Anleu, ‘The National Survey of Australian Judges’, above n 8, 17.

134. Ibid.

135. Appleby et al, above n 10, 34. See Opeskin, ‘The High Cost of Judges’, above n 119 on the sustainability of judicial pensions in Australia.

136. Remuneration Tribunal, ‘2016 Review of Remuneration for Judicial and Related Offices — Statement’ (Statement, 4 October 2016) 4.

137. Ibid.

138. Ibid.

139. Remuneration Tribunal, ‘2016 Review of Remuneration for Judicial and Related Offices — Statement’ (Statement, 28 November 2016) 2.

140. Appleby et al, above n 10.

141. McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2017] UKET 2201483/2015 (16 January 2017) [78].

142. See Ministry of Justice, ‘New Judicial Pension Scheme 2015: Policy Papers’ (Policy Papers, 30 June 2014).

143. McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2017] UKET 2201483/2015 (16 January 2017); McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2018] ICR 1039; The Lord Chancellor v McCloud [2018] EWCA Civ 2844 (20 December 2018). In the Employment Tribunal, the provisions were held to be both not pursuing a legitimate aim, and not proportionate. In the Employment Appeal Tribunal, it was held that there was a legitimate aim, but that the provisions were not proportionate. In the Court of Appeal, the decision of the Employment Tribunal was upheld.

144. McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2017] UKET 2201483/2015 (16 January 2017) [73]–[77].

145. International Association of Judges, Universal Charter of the Judge (Charter, 17 November 1999).

146. Economic and Social Council, The Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct November 2002, 59th sess, Agenda Item 11, E/CN.4/2003/65 (25 February 2003).

147. Ibid.

148. See Lee and Campbell, above n 46, 6; Malleson, ‘Judicial Training and Performance Appraisal’, above n 48.

149. But see Gabrielle Appleby and Stephen McDonald, ‘Pride and Prejudice: A Case for Reform of Judicial Recusal Procedure’ (2017) 20 Legal Ethics 89.

150. UK Association of Fee Paid Judges, Who We Are <https://www.ukaptj.co.uk/who-we-are/>.

151. Judicial Conference of Australia, Judicial Conference of Australia (2018) <http://www.jca.asn.au/>.

152. Judicial Conference of Australia, ‘Position Paper: Judicial Officers’ Retirement Benefits’ (Position Paper, July 2012).

153. Judicial Conference of Australia, Submission No 4 to the Senate Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Inquiry into the Courts Legislation Amendment (Judicial Complaints) Bill 2012 and the Judicial Misbehaviour and Incapacity (Parliamentary Commissions) Bill 2012, 2012.

154. Association of Judges of Ireland, Foundation <https://aji.ie/about-us/foundation/>.

155. Ibid.

156. Association of Judges of Ireland, Our Aims and Objectives <https://aji.ie/about-us/our-aims-objectives/>.

157. Ken Foxe, ‘Some Judges “Struggling to Get by” on Six-Figure Salaries’, Irish Examiner (online), 26 September 2017 <http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/some-judges-struggling-to-get-by-on-six-figure-salaries-459722.html>.

158. Shane Phelan, ‘Talk of Gold-Plated Pensions Are Wide of Mark — Top Judge’, Independent (online), 28 December 2017 <https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/talk-of-goldplated-pensions-are-wide-of-mark-top-judge-36440977.html>.

159. Association of Administrative Law Judges, Why Should You Join the AALJ? (2009) <https://aalj.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/07g.pdf>.

160. Ibid. See also Gabrielle Fauconnier, Alexandra Husson and Camille Roux d’Anzi, ‘Collective Organisations of Judges and Professional Conduct: A Revived Approach to Judicial Ethics’ (Report, 30 June 2016) on the discussion of French judicial trade unions, and their potential to enhance judicial ethics.

161. Association of Administrative Law Judges, What Is the AALJ? (2009) 2, <https://aalj.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/07f.pdf>.

162. See Jamie Horwitz, DC Judges Vote for a Union with IFPTE (31 July 2014) International Federation of Professional & Technical Engineers <http://www.ifpte.org/news/details/DC-Judges-Vote-for-a-Union-with-IFPTE>.

163. Collective Bargaining Agreement between Federation of Administrative Law Judges — DC and the District of Columbia and the Office of Administrative Hearings, The Government of the District of Columbia DCR 63 (1 October 2015 to 30 September 2019).

164. Ibid.

165. Paul Magrath, Judges on Strike: Could It Happen Here? (27 November 2012) The Incorporated Council of Law Reporting for England & Wales <https://www.iclr.co.uk/legal-profession/judges-on-strike-could-it-happen-here/>.

166. Economic and Social Council, The Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct November 2002, 59th sess, Agenda Item 11, E/CN.4/2003/65 (25 February 2003).

167. McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2017] UKET 2201483/2015 (16 January 2017).

168. Perceval-Price v Department of Economic Development [2000] IRLR 380.

169. O’Brien v Ministry of Justice (C-393/10) [2012] ICR 955; O’Brien v Ministry of Justice [2013] UKSC 46.

170. See also Hunter, above n 74, 92.

171. Ibid 95.

172. Rachel Davis and George Williams, ‘Reform of the Judicial Appointments Process: Gender and the Bench of the High Court of Australia’ (2003) 27 Melbourne University Law Review 819. For updated statistics, see Australasian Institute of Judicial Administration, Judicial Gender Statistics (7 March 2018) <https://aija.org.au/research/judicial-gender-statistics/>.

173. [2017] UKSC 27 (5 April 2017).

174. (2012) 206 FCR 229.

175. Thomas, ‘2016 UK Judicial Attitude Survey’, above n 33, 78.

176. Ibid.

177. Alysia Blackham, ‘Judges and Retirement Ages’ (2016) 39(3) Melbourne University Law Review 738.

178. Judicial Pensions and Retirement Act 1993 (UK). See Alysia Blackham, ‘Judicial Retirement Ages in the UK: Legitimate Aims and Proportionate Means?’ [2017] Public Law 196.

179. Blackham, ‘Judges and Retirement Ages’, above n 177; Blackham, ‘Judicial Retirement Ages in the UK’, above n 178.

180. Indeed, in applying UK equality law to judicial retirement ages, I have questioned whether they are valid at all: Blackham, ‘Judicial Retirement Ages in the UK’, above n 178.

181. See, eg, Industrial Relations Reform Act 1993 (Cth), Anti-Discrimination (Amendment) Act 1994 (NSW), Abolition of Compulsory Age Retirement (Statutory Officeholders) Act 2001 (Cth), Age Discrimination Act 2004 (Cth), The Employment Equality (Repeal of Retirement Age Provisions) Regulations (UK) SI 2011/1069.

182. In the UK, employers may still adopt an ‘employer-justified retirement age’ where this can be objectively justified as a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim. Few employers have chosen to adopt a retirement age since the law was changed in 2011. See further Lucy Vickers and Simonetta Manfredi, ‘Age Equality and Retirement: Squaring the Circle’ (2013) 42 Industrial Law Journal 61.

183. See Australian Law Reform Commission, Grey Areas — Age Barriers to Work in Commonwealth Laws, Discussion Paper No 78 (2012) 59–60 [2.105]–[2.110].

184. Leslie L Anderson, ‘Age Discrimination: Mandatory Retirement from the Bench’ (1973–74) 20 Loyola Law Review 153, 153.

185. Appleby et al, above n 10, 37.

186. Blackham, ‘Judges and Retirement Ages’, above n 177. See also Brian Opeskin, ‘Models of Judicial Tenure: Reconsidering Life Limits, Age Limits and Term Limits for Judges’ (2015) 35(4) Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 627.

187. Opeskin, ‘Models of Judicial Tenure’, above n 186, 663.

188. Opeskin, ‘The High Cost of Judges’, above n 119, 64–6; Opeskin, ‘The Supply of Judicial Labour’, above n 27, 861–2.

189. Blackham, ‘Judges and Retirement Ages’, above n 177. On systems for managing judicial incapacity and complaints, see Gabrielle Appleby and Suzanne Le Mire, ‘Judicial Conduct: Crafting a System That Enhances Institutional Integrity’ (2014) 38 Melbourne University Law Review 1.

190. Blackham, ‘Judges and Retirement Ages’, above n 177, 767.

191. Appleby et al, above n 10, 39.

192. See Appleby and Le Mire, above n 189; Opeskin, ‘Models of Judicial Tenure’, above n 186.

193. See, eg, Susan Sturm, ‘Second Generation Employment Discrimination: A Structural Approach’ (2001) 101 Columbia Law Review 458.

194. [2015] UKEAT/0247/14/LA.

195. Nathalie Burnay, ‘Ageing at Work: Between Changing Social Policy Patterns and Reorganization of Working Times’ (2011) 50(2) Population Review 150, 161.

196. Tony Maltby, ‘The Employability of Older Workers: What Works?’ in Wendy Loretto, Sarah Vickerstaff and Phil White (eds), The Future for Older Workers: New Perspectives (Policy Press, 2009) 161, 170–1.

197. Alysia Blackham, ‘Rethinking Working Time to Support Older Workers’ (2015) 31(2) International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations 119.

198. Thomas, ‘2014 UK Judicial Attitude Survey’, above n 34, 46.

199. Ibid 51.

200. Ibid.

201. Thomas, ‘2016 UK Judicial Attitude Survey’, above n 33, 52.

202. Ibid.

203. Ibid 57.

204. Mack and Anleu, ‘The National Survey of Australian Judges’, above n 8, 15.

205. In relation to the general workforce, and older workers in particular, see Miriam Hartlapp and Günther Schmid, ‘Labour Market Policy for “Active Ageing” in Europe: Expanding the Options for Retirement Transitions’ (2008) 37 Journal of Social Policy 409, 417.

206. Employment Rights Act 1996 (UK) s 80F.

207. Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth) s 65. Note, however, that the right only applies to employees in certain circumstances in Australia.

208. Ministry of Justice (UK), Judicial Salaried Part-Time Working: A Practical Guide (April 2009) 7 <https://www.judicialappointments.gov.uk/sites/default/files/sync/basic_page/judicial_salaried_part-time_working_a_practical_guide.pdf>.

209. Ibid 8.

210. Ibid 7.

211. Ibid 11.

212. Thomas, ‘2016 UK Judicial Attitude Survey’, above n 33, 52.

213. Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) s 75C(1)–(2); Magistrates Court Act 1989 (Vic) s 7A(1)–(2).

214. Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) s 75C(3); Magistrates Court Act 1989 (Vic) s 7A(3).

215. Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) s 84A; Magistrates Court Act 1989 (Vic) ss 7(9)–7(9B).

216. Mack and Anleu, ‘The National Survey of Australian Judges’, above n 8, 17.

217. Ibid 18.

218. Sharyn Roach Anleu and Kathy Mack, ‘Job Satisfaction in the Judiciary’ (2014) 28 Work, Employment & Society 683, 690.

219. Pearson Chi-Square: 58.962, p ≤ 0.005: Ibid.

220. Sharyn Roach Anleu and Kathy Mack, ‘Judicial Performance and Experiences of Judicial Work: Findings from Socio-Legal Research’ (2014) 4(5) Oñati Socio-Legal Studies 1015, 1034.

221. Appleby et al, above n 10, 30.

222. Opeskin, ‘The Supply of Judicial Labour’, above n 27, 859–60.

223. Ibid 860.

224. Appleby et al, above n 10, 25.

225. Ibid.

226. Ibid 41.

227. NSW Committee on Ageing, Parliament of New South Wales, Counting on Experience: A Review of Good Practice in the Employment of Mature Workers (December 2001) 34.

228. See, eg, Acas, The Right to Request Flexible Working <http://www.acas.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=1616>; Acas, ‘Flexible Working and Work-Life Balance’ (March 2013).

229. McMurdo, above n 40.

230. See McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2017] UKET 2201483/2015 (16 January 2017) [53]–[56], [90]–[92], [113]–[117]; McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2018] UKEAT 0071/17/LA (29 January 2018) [166]–[167].

231. McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2017] UKET 2201483/2015 (16 January 2017) [92], [113]–[117]; McCloud v Ministry of Justice [2018] UKEAT 0071/17/LA (29 January 2018) [166]–[167]. Though this approach was rejected by the Employment Tribunal, the Employment Appeal Tribunal and the Court of Appeal.

232. Brian Galligan and Peter Russell, ‘The Politicisation of the Judiciary in Australia and Canada’ (1995) 67(2) The Australian Quarterly 85.

233. Joshua Rozenberg, ‘Senior Judges Are Hanging up Their Wigs. Replacing Them Won’t Be Cheap’, The Guardian (online), 4 April 2016 <http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/apr/04/judiciary-recruitment-crisis-judicial-appointments-commission>.

234. Lara Bullock, ‘Budget Cuts to Courts and Legal Services’, Lawyers Weekly (online), 5 May 2016 <http://www.lawyersweekly.com.au/news/18509-budget-cuts-to-courts-and-legal-services>; ‘The Guardian View on Cuts to the Justice Budget: Eroding the Rule of Law’, The Guardian (online), 30 July 2015 <https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jul/30/the-guardian-view-on-cuts-to-the-justice-budget-eroding-the-rule-of-law>.

235. ‘Opinion of Advocate General Kokott’ (17 November 2011) O’Brien v Ministry of Justice (C-393/10) [50].