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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 January 2025
The concept of ‘justiciability’ in Australian federal jurisprudence has been described by the High Court as a ‘slippery term of indeterminate reference’. With the High Court yet to comprehensively consider the concept of justiciability, Australia’s jurisprudence has failed to develop a coherent doctrine which is apt to govern the outer limits of judicial power under Chapter III of the Constitution. This article argues the transplantation of UK justiciability jurisprudence into Australia’s constitutional context, as well as doctrinal inconsistencies in UK case law, have resulted in applications of the doctrine which undermine key principles of federal judicial power. Drawing on existing case law, this article proposes a reconceptualisation of justiciability into three categories — constitutional competence, institutional capacity and institutional legitimacy — as a principled framework to be applied and developed by Australian jurists going forward.
All mistakes are my own. I would like to thank Associate Professor Ryan Goss and Associate Professor Will Bateman for their invaluable comments and feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript.
1. (1807) 5 US (1 Cranch) 137 (‘Marbury’); Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1, 262 (Fullagar J) (‘Communist Party Case’).
2. Marbury (n 1) 177; Communist Party Case (n 1) 262 (Fullagar J); Attorney-General (NSW) v Quin (1990) 170 CLR 1, 35–6 (Brennan J); Thomas v Mowbray (2007) 233 CLR 307, 476 [506] (Hayne J) (‘Thomas’); Abebe v Commonwealth (1999) 197 CLR 510, 560 [137] (Gummow and Hayne JJ) (‘Abebe’).
3. Sir Anthony Mason, ‘The High Court as Gatekeeper,’ (2000) 24(3) Melbourne University Law Review 784, 788.
4. Hobart International Airport Pty Ltd v Clarence City Council [2022] HCA 5, [47] (‘Hobart International Airport’), quoting R v Trade Practices Tribunal; Ex parte Tasmanian Breweries Pty Ltd (1970) 123 CLR 361, 374.
5. Thomas (n 2) 354 [105].
6. Lindon v Commonwealth (No 2) (1996) 136 ALR 251, 259.
7. Thorpe v Commonwealth (No 3) (1997) 144 ALR 677, 691 (‘Thorpe’).
8. Geoffrey Lindell, ‘Justiciability’ in Tony Blackshield, Michael Coper and George Williams (eds), The Oxford Companion to the High Court of Australia (Oxford University Press, 2001) <https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195540222.001.0001/acref-9780195540222-e-226?rskey=XCpM7N&result=227>.
9. Thorpe (n 7) 692.
10. St Pierre v South American Stores (Gath and Chaves) Ltd [1936] 1 KB 382, 398 (Scott LJ), cited in Oceanic Sun Line Special Shipping Company Co Inc v Fay (1988) 165 CLR 197, 209 (Wilson and Toohey JJ), 233 (Brennan J), 262 (Gaudron J).
11. Re Ditfort; Ex parte Deputy Commissioner of Taxation (1988) 19 FCR 347, 368 (‘Re Ditfort’).
12. See Chris Finn, ‘The Justiciability of Administrative Decisions: A Redundant Concept?’ (2002) 30(2) Federal Law Review 239.
13. See Hobart International Airport (n 4) and CGU Insurance Ltd v Blakeley (2016) 259 CLR 339 (‘CGU’).
14. Mason (n 3) 788.
15. See, eg, Amanda Sapienza, Judicial Review of Non-Statutory Executive Action (The Federation Press, 2020); the Hon Alan Robertson SC, ‘Supervising the legal boundaries of executive powers’ (2021) 50 Australian Bar Review 12; Amanda Sapienza, ‘Judicial Review of Non-statutory Executive Action: Australia and the United Kingdom Reunited?’ (2018) 43 University of Western Australia Law Review 67.
16. Davis v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs [2021] FCAFC 213 (‘Davis’), affirming Robertson J’s decision in Jabbour v Secretary, Department of Home Affairs (2019) 269 FCR 438. See also Davis v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs & Ors [2022] HCATrans 89 (12 May 2022) and DCM20 v Secretary of Department of Home Affairs & Anor [2022] HCATrans 90 (12 May 2022).
17. Finn (n 12); Fiona Wheeler, ‘Judicial Review of Prerogative Power in Australia: Issues and Prospects’ (1992) 14 Sydney Law Review 432; Anne Twomey, ‘The Prerogative and the Courts in Australia’ (2021) 3 Journal of Commonwealth Law 55; Mark Leeming, ‘Judicial Review of Vice-regal Decisions: South Australia v O’Shea, Its Precursors and Its Progeny’ (2016) 36 Adelaide Law Review 15; Anne Twomey, ‘The Justiciability of Prorogation’ (2019) 93 Australian Law Journal 913.
18. See, eg, B V Harris, ‘Judicial Review, Justiciability and the Prerogative of Mercy’ (2003) 62 Cambridge Law Journal 631; Paul Daly, ‘Justiciability and the “Political Question” Doctrine’ [2010] Public Law 160; Margit Cohn, ‘Form, Formula and Constitutional Ethos: The Political Question/Justiciability Doctrine in Three Common Law Systems’ (2011) 59(3) American Journal of Comparative Law 675; David Feldman, ‘Prerogative Powers, Constitutional Principles and Legal Wrongs: Constitutional Implications of the Prorogation Judgement’ (2020) 25(3) Judicial Review 210; Thomas Poole, ‘Judicial Review at the Margins: Law, Power, and Prerogative’ (2010) 60(1) University of Toronto Law Journal 81.
19. Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374 (‘CCSU’); R (Bancoult) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (No 2) [2009] AC 453 (‘Bancoult’); R (Sandiford) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs [2014] UKSC 44 (‘Sandiford’).
20. Attorney-General (Cth) v Ogawa (2020) 281 FCR 1 (‘Ogawa’); Habib v Commonwealth (2010) 183 FCR 62; Kline v Official Secretary to the Governor-General (2013) 249 CLR 645 (‘Kline’).
21. R (Miller) v The Prime Minister; Cherry v Advocate General for Scotland [2020] AC 373 (‘Miller (No 2)’).
22. See, eg, Pyrenees Shire Council v Day (1998) 192 CLR 330; Crimmins v Stevedoring Industry Finance Committee (1990) 200 CLR 1; Brodie v Singleton Shire Council (2001) 206 CLR 512, 560 [106] (Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ) (‘Brodie’); Graham Barclay Oysters Pty Ltd v Ryan (2002) 211 CLR 540; Dansar Pty Ltd v Byron Shire Council (2014) 89 NSWLR 1; Roo Roofing Pty Ltd v Commonwealth [2019] VSC 331, 447 [455]; Minister for the Environment v Sharma [2022] FCAFC 35, [7], [15]–[17], [244]–[266] (Allsop CJ) (‘Sharma’).
23. See Brodie (n 22) 560 [106] (Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ).
24. [1982] AC 888 (‘Buttes Gas’).
25. Mohammed (Serdar) v Minister of Defence [2017] AC 649, 755 [320] (‘Mohammed’).
26. [2015] AC 359 (‘Shergill’).
27. Mohammed (n 25).
28. Shergill (n 26) 377 [42].
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid 377–8 [43].
34. R (Al-Haq) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs [2009] EWHC 1910, [60] (‘Al-Haq’).
35. R (Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) v Prime Minister [2002] EWHC 2777, [36] (‘Nuclear Disarmament Case’).
36. Ibid.
37. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature 4 November 1950, 213 UNTS 221 (entered into force 3 September 1953).
38. Shergill (n 26) 377–8 [43].
39. Buttes Gas (n 24) 931.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Mason (n 3) 787.
46. Brodie (n 22) 555 [92] (Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ).
47. Re Limbo (1989) 92 ALR 81, 82 (‘Re Limbo’).
48. Thomas (n 2) 354 [105] (Gummow and Crennan JJ).
49. See Chapter III, Part B, Section 1, sub-section (b).
50. See Chapter III, Part B, Section 1, sub-section (c).
51. See Chapter III, Part B, Section 1, sub-section (a).
52. In re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257, 267; See also CGU (n 13) 350 [26] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ) and Truth About Motorways Pty Ltd v Macquarie Infrastructure Investment Management Ltd (2000) 200 CLR 591, 612 [49] (Gaudron J) (‘Motorways’).
53. See, eg, Chief Justice James Allsop, ‘Federal jurisdiction and the jurisdiction of the Federal Court of Australia’ (2002) 23 Australian Bar Review 29; South Australia v Victoria (1911) 12 CLR 667, 674 (Griffith CJ); In re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (n 52) 264–67; CGU (n 13); Hobart International Airport (n 4).
54. Petrotimor Companhia De Petroleos SARL v Commonwealth (2003) 126 FCR 354, 372 [63] (Black CJ and Hill J) (‘Petrotimor’).
55. Century Metals & Mining NL v Yeomans (1989) 40 FCR 564, 587 (Fisher, Wilcox and Spender JJ).
56. (1947) 74 CLR 31 (‘Melbourne Corp’).
57. Ibid 82 (Dixon J).
58. The paradigm case being Petrotimor (n 54).
59. Mason (n 3) 795.
59. As vested, in part, in the Federal Court by 39B of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth) (‘Judiciary Act’), under s 77(i) of the Constitution.
60. As vested, in part, in the Federal Court by 39B of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth) (’Judiciary Act‘), under s 77(i) of the Constitution.
61. Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337, 381 [89] (Gummow and Hayne JJ).
62. See generally CGU (n 13); Hobart International Airport (n 4); Motorways (n 51); Palmer v Ayres (2017) 259 CLR 478 (‘Palmer’).
63. Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476, 482–3 [5] (Gleeson CJ) (‘Plaintiff S157’).
64. APLA Ltd v Legal Services Commissioner (NSW) (2005) 224 CLR 322, 351 [30] (Gleeson CJ).
65. Re Ditfort (n 11) 369.
66. For judicial support of Re Ditfort, see Habib v Commonwealth (No 2) (2009) 175 FCR 350 (‘Habib (No 2)’); Thorpe (n 6); Hicks v Ruddock (2007) 156 FCR 574 (‘Hicks’); Stewart v Ronalds (2009) 76 NSWLR 99, 112 [42]–[43] (Allsop P); Davis (n 16) [29] (Kenny J), [173] (Mortimer J); Habib v Commonwealth (2010) 183 FCR 62.
67. Re Ditfort (n 11) 368.
68. Habib (No 2) (n 66) 364 [48] (Perram J).
69. Hicks (n 66) 585–6 [27] (Tamberlin J).
70. (1987) 15 FCR 274, 307 (‘Peko-Wallsend’).
71. (2009) 111 ALD 546 (‘Aye’).
72. [2005] FCA 664 (‘Humane Society’).
73. Buttes Gas (n 24); Ex parte Molyneaux [1986] 1 WLR 331, 336; Blackburn v Attorney-General [1971] 1 WLR 1037, 1040 (Denning LJ).
74. Dominic McGoldrick, ‘The Boundaries of Justiciability’ (2010) 59(4) The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 981, 1004.
75. Peko-Wallsend (n 70) 307.
76. Ibid 308.
77. Ibid.
78. (1982) 153 CLR 168.
79. Ibid 229.
80. Aye (n 71) [51] (Emmett J); Aye v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship (2010) 187 FCR 449, 474–5 [127] (McKerracher J) (‘Aye Full Court’).
81. Plaintiff S157 (n 63) 513 [103] (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).
82. Aye Full Court (n 80) 471–2 [108].
83. Ibid 474–5 [127] (McKerracher J).
84. Humane Society (n 72) [19].
85. Ibid [24].
86. Humane Society International Inc v Kyodo Sepanku Kaisha Ltd (2006) 154 FCR 425.
87. Ibid 430 [12]–[13] (Black CJ and Finkelstein J).
88. FA Mann, Foreign Affairs in English Courts (Oxford University Press, 1986) 69.
89. Oetjen v Central Leather Co (1918) 246 US 297 (‘Oetjen’).
90. Cook v Sprigg [1899] AC 572, 578 (‘Cook’).
91. Duke of Brunswick v King of Hanover (1848) 9 ER 993.
92. Eng-Lye Ong, ‘Non-justiciability in Private International Law: Principle or Discretion?’ (2002) 31 Common Law World Review 35, 38.
93. Cook (n 90).
94. Oetjen (n 89).
95. Cook (n 90) 578.
96. Ibid.
97. (1897) 168 US 250.
98. Oetjen (n 89) 304.
99. (1962) 369 US 186 (‘Baker’).
100. John Harrison, ‘The Political Question Doctrines’ (2018) 67(2) American University Law Review 457.
101. Baker (n 99) 217.
102. Daniel Abebe, ‘One Voice or Many? The Political Question Doctrine and Acoustic Dissonance in Foreign Affairs’ [2012–13] The Supreme Court Review 233, 234.
103. Zivotofsky v Clinton (2012) 566 US 189 (‘Zivotofsky’).
104. Zivotofsky v Kerry (2015) 576 US 1059 (‘Zivotofsky II’).
105. [1985] 1 SCR 441, [55], [104] (Wilson J) (‘Operation Dismantle’).
106. Ong (n 92) 40ff.
107. Cameron Sim, ‘Non-Justiciability in Australian Private International Law: A Lack of “Judicial Restraint”’ (2009) 10(1) Melbourne Journal of International Law 102, 134.
108. Kawasaki Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha of Kobe v Bantham Steamship Co [1939] 2 KB 544, [552].
109. Mann (n 88) 70.
110. (1988) 165 CLR 30 (‘Spycatcher Case’).
111. Ibid 42 (Mason CJ, Wilson, Deane, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).
112. Ibid. As to the ‘act of state’ doctrine, see Matthew Alderton, ‘The Act of State Doctrine: Questions of Validity and Abstention from Underhill to Habib’ (2001) 12(1) Melbourne Journal of International Law 1.
113. See, eg, Dagi v The Broken Hill Proprietary Co Ltd [1997] 1 VR 428, 453 (Byrne J).
114. JH Rayner (Mincing Lane) Ltd v Department of Trade and Industry [1990] 2 AC 418, 519; Shergill (n 26) 377 [41].
115. Kuwait Airways Corporation v Iraqi Airways Corporation (Nos 4 and 5) [2002] AC 883, 1101; Rahmatullah (No 1) v Ministry of Defence [2017] AC 964, 999–1000.
116. Petrotimor (n 54).
117. (2007) 159 FCR 578 (‘Gamogab’).
118. See Sim (n 107) 128; Richard Garnett, ‘Foreign States and Australian Courts’ (2005) 29(3) Melbourne University Law Review 704, 719.
119. Treaty between Australia and the Republic of Indonesia on the Zone of Cooperation in an Area between the Indonesian Province of East Timor and Northern Australia, signed 11 December 1989 [1991] ATS 9 (entered into force 9 February 1991) (‘Timor Gap Treaty’).
120. Petrotimor (n 54) 366 [33] (Black CJ and Hill J).
121. Ibid 369 [48].
122. Ibid 372 [63].
123. Ibid 369 [48].
124. Sim (n 107) 135.
125. Petrotimor (n 54) 370 [53].
126. Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292, 307 (Mason CJ and McHugh J), 321 (Brennan J); Re Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; Ex parte Lam (2003) 214 CLR 1, 32–3 [98]–[100] (McHugh and Gummow JJ).
127. Sim (n 107) 129.
128. Gamogab (n 117).
129. Treaty between Australia and the Independent State of Papua New Guinea concerning Sovereignty and Maritime Boundaries in the area between the two Countries, including the area known as Torres Strait, and Related Matters, signed 18 December 1978, [1985] ATS 4 (entered into force 15 February 1985) (‘Torres Strait Treaty’).
130. Gamogab (n 117) 587–8 [34], 589 [39].
131. Mokbel v Attorney-General (Cth) (2007) 162 FCR 278, 293–4 [59]–[60] (Gordon J); Ure v Commonwealth (2015) 323 ALR 164, 171–2 [37]–[41] (Wigney J).
132. For example, the US ‘political question’ doctrine has received a number of fleeting mentions by the High Court: Melbourne Corp (n 57) 82 (Dixon J); Victoria v Commonwealth (1975) 134 CLR 81, 127ff (McTiernan J) (‘AAP Case’); Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70, 139 (Brennan J) (‘Gerhardy’); Thorpe (n 7) 692.
133. Geoffrey Marshall, ‘Justiciability’ in Anthony Gordon Guest (ed), Oxford Essays in Jurisprudence: A Collaborative Work (Oxford University Press, 1961) 268.
134. Jeff King, Judging Social Rights (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 130.
135. Ibid.
136. Lorne Sossin, Boundaries of Judicial Review: The Law of Justiciability in Canada (Thomson Reuters, 2nd ed, 2012) 233–5.
137. King (n 134) 130.
138. Ibid.
139. Harris (n 18) 644.
140. Daly (n 18).
141. Harris (n 18) 644.
142. T R S Allan, Law, Liberty and Justice (Oxford University Press, 1993) 212–13.
143. Finn (n 12) 253, 262.
144. Daly (n 18) 161. See also Harris (n 18) 644.
145. Daly (n 18) 168–9.
146. Ibid 173–4.
147. Supra n 60.
148. Northern Suburbs General Cemetery Reserve Trust v Commonwealth (1993) 176 CLR 555, 578 (Mason CJ, Deane J, Toohey J and Gaudron J); Osborne v Commonwealth (1911) 12 CLR 321, 336, 339 (Griffith CJ) (‘Osborne’). See also Western Australia v Commonwealth (1995) 183 CLR 373, 482; Permanent Trustee Australia Ltd v Commissioner of State Revenue (Vic) (2004) 220 CLR 388, 409 [41] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Callinan and Heydon JJ); Combet v Commonwealth (2005) 224 CLR 494, 570 [141] (Gummow, Hayne, Callinan and Heydon JJ).
149. Osborne (n 148) 336.
150. AAP Case (n 132) 338; Geoffrey Lindell, ‘The Justiciability of Political Questions: Recent Developments’ in HP Lee and George Winterton (eds), Australian Constitutional Perspectives (Law Book Co, 1992) 185.
151. Cormack v Cope (1974) 131 CLR 432.
152. R v Governor (SA) (1907) 4 CLR 1497, 1511.
153. Lindell (n 150) 180–1; Gabrielle Appleby and Adam Webster, ‘Parliament’s Role in Constitutional Interpretation’ (2013) 37 Melbourne University Law Review 255, 269.
154. Matthew Groves and Enid Campbell, ‘Parliamentary Privilege and the Courts: Questions of Justiciability’ (2007) 7(2) Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal 175, 176.
155. Canada (House of Commons) v Vaid [2005] 1 SCR 667, [47].
156. (1839) 112 ER 1112, 1186 (‘Stockdale’).
157. (1955) 92 CLR 157, 162.
158. Alford v Parliamentary Joint Committee on Corporations and Financial Services (2018) 264 CLR 289, 299 [29] (Gordon J).
159. [1894] 12 QBD 271, 275 (‘Bradlaugh’), cited in Egan v Willis (1998) 195 CLR 424, 461 (McHugh J) (‘Egan’).
160. Bradlaugh (n 159).
161. Egan (n 159) 462 (McHugh J).
162. Ibid.
163. (1988) 166 CLR 79, 108. See also Plaintiff M68/2015 v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (2016) 257 CLR 42, 97–9 [132]–[136] (Gageler J).
164. Twomey (n 17) 89 ff. See also supra n 17 and n 18.
165. Twomey (n 17) 89.
166. Ibid 90.
167. See Mason J’s discussion in R v Toohey; ex parte Northern Land Council (1981) 151 CLR 170, 217–19 (‘Toohey’). See also Gibbs J’s remarks in NSW v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 337, 388 (‘NSW’) and Gibbs CJ and Mason J’s discussion in Barton v The Queen (1980) 147 CLR 75.
168. CCSU (n 19).
169. Toohey (n 167): 220–1 (Mason J); Peko-Wallsend (n 70) 278 (Bowen CJ), 280 (Sheppard J) and 302–4 (Wilcox J).
170. CCSU (n 19) 407 (Scarman LJ), 411 (Diplock LJ) and 418 (Roskill LJ).
171. Bancoult (n 19) [105].
172. Sandiford (n 19) [50]–[52].
173. Twomey (n 17) 92. See also discussion of primary and secondary justiciability in Chapter III, Part A above.
174. Miller (No 2) (n 21) 403 [35].
175. Ibid 407 [50].
176. Ibid 404–5 [41], 406 [46], 408–9 [55]–[56].
177. Barton v Commonwealth (1974) 131 CLR 477, 498 (Mason J) (‘Barton’); Ruddock v Varlis (2001) 110 FCR 491, 537–9 [176]–[180] (French J).
178. Lionel Hogg, ‘The Brexit Case—Implications for Australia’, Gadens (Legal Insights, 10 January 2020) <https://www.gadens.com/legal-insights/the-brexit-case-implications-for-australia/#ftn13>.
179. George Winterton, ‘The Limits and Use of Executive Power by Government’ (2003) 31(3) Federal Law Review 421, 425.
180. AAP Case (n 132) 406 (Jacobs J).
181. Supra n 167.
182. Kline (n 20) 653 [11], 661–2 [38]–[39] (French CJ, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).
183. Ogawa (n 20).
184. Ibid 16–17 [73]. See also Holzinger v Attorney-General (Qld) [2020] QCA 165.
185. Ogawa (n 20) 17 [75].
186. Davis (n 16) [91] (Griffiths J).
187. Peko-Wallsend (n 70) 307 (Wilcox J).
188. Communist Party Case (n 1).
189. Aye (n 71) [44] (Emmett J).
190. Barton (n 177) 498 (Mason J).
191. Toohey (n 167) 218 (Mason J).
192. Gabrielle Appleby and Stephen McDonald, ‘Looking at Executive Power through the High Court’s New Spectacles’ (2010) 35(2) Sydney Law Review 253, 253.
193. CGU (n 13) 351 [27] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ).
194. Fencott v Muller (1983) 152 CLR 570, 603 (Mason, Murphy, Brennan and Deane JJ).
195. Re McBain; Ex Parte Australian Catholic Bishops Conference (2002) 209 CLR 372. See also Palmer (n 62) 491 [27] (Kiefel, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ); CGU (n 13) 352 [30] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ). See also the recent decision of the NSW Court of Appeal concerning the non-justiciability of the application of the rules of an unincorporated political party in the context of pre-selections in NSW federal electoral seats by the Liberal Party for the 2022 federal election: Camenzuli v Morrison [2022] NSWCA 51, applying Cameron v Hogan (1934) 51 CLR 29.
196. South Australia v Victoria (n 53) 708.
197. (1921) 29 CLR 257, 265.
198. (1991) 173 CLR 289, 303 (Mason CJ, Deane, Dawson, Gaudron and McHugh JJ). See also Abebe (n 2) 527 [31] (Gleeson CJ and McHugh J) and Motorways (n 52) 612 [48]–[49] (Gaudron J).
199. Hobart International Airport (n 4) [31] (Kiefel CJ, Keane and Gordon JJ), [49] (Gageler and Gleeson JJ). See also Pape v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (2009) 238 CLR 1, 68 [152]; Australian Conservation Foundation v Commonwealth (1980) 146 CLR 493, 5501; Croome v Tasmania (1997) 191 CLR 119, 124–6, 132–6; Bateman’s Bay Local Aboriginal Land Council v Aboriginal Community Benefit Fund Pty Ltd (1998) 194 CLR 247, 262 [37]; Motorways (n 52) 610–13 [42]–[50], 629–33 [101]–[109], 659–60 [177]–[179]; Kuczborski v Queensland (2014) 254 CLR 51, 60–1 [5], 87–8 [98]–[100], 130–2 [278].
200. Hobart International Airport (n 4) [31] (Kiefel CJ, Keane and Gordon JJ), [49] (Gageler and Gleeson JJ). See also Abebe (n 2) 527 [31]–[32] (Gleeson CJ and McHugh J).
201. Re Ditfort (n 11) 369–70, citing Ingram v Commonwealth (1980) 54 ALJR 395 and Simsek v Macphee (1982) 148 CLR 636.
202. Re Ditfort (n 11) 370, citing Tasmanian Wilderness Society Inc v Fraser (1982) 153 CLR 270, 274. See also Re East; Ex Parte Nguyen (1998) 196 CLR 354.
203. Re Limbo (n 47).
204. Thorpe (n 7).
205. Nuclear Disarmament Case (n 35). See also Al-Haq (n 34).
206. (1962) 108 CLR 130 (‘Railway Standardization Case’).
207. Ibid 141 (Dixon CJ).
208. Ibid.
209. South Australia v Victoria (n 53).
210. Ibid 706.
211. Ibid 714.
212. Railway Standardization Case (n 206) 154; See also John Cooke & Co Pty Ltd v Commonwealth and the Central Wool Committee (1922) 31 CLR 394, 416; P J Magennis Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1949) 80 CLR 382, 409.
213. (1839) 5 Bing (NC) 262, 274, cited in Railway Standardization Case (n 206) 154. See also Ex parte Napier (1852) 18 QB 692.
214. Davis (n 16) [38] (Kenny J), citing Communist Party Case (n 1) 272 (Kitto J) and Thomas (n 2) 418–19 [321]–[322] (Kirby J) and 474–8 [501]–[512] Hayne J.
215. Buttes Gas (n 24) 931.
216. Ibid.
217. [2005] EWCA Civ 1116, [37]–[47].
218. T R S Allan, ‘Human Rights and Judicial Review: A Critique of “Due Deference”’ (2006) 65(3) Cambridge Law Journal 671, 672–3.
219. King (n 134) 131.
220. McGoldrick (n 74) 1017. For example, Sheppard J’s remarks in Peko-Wallsend (n 70) 381 that the appellant’s case should ‘fail at the outset’ because the decision was made by Cabinet should be rejected.
221. Sharma (n 22) [7], [15]–[17], [244]–[266] (Allsop CJ).
222. Supra n 22.
223. Sharma (n 22) [238] (Allsop CJ).
224. See, eg, A v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] 2 AC 68 (‘Belmarsh Detainees’); R (Hooper) v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions [2005] UKHL 29; Aye (n 71).
225. Julian Rivers, ‘Proportionality and Variable Intensity of Review’ (2006) 65(1) The Cambridge Law Journal 174, 175–6, citing Lon Fuller, ‘The Forms and Limits of Adjudication’ (1978) 92 Harvard Law Review 353.
226. R (ProLife Alliance) v British Broadcasting Corporation [2004] 1 AC 185, 240 [76].
227. King (n 134) 123–9.
228. Mason (n 3) 795.
229. King (n 134) 136, citing Aileen Kavanagh, ‘Deference or Defiance? The Limits of the Judicial Role in Constitutional Adjudication’ in Grant Huscroft (ed), Expounding the Constitution: Thesis in Constitutional Theory (Cambridge University Press, 2009).
230. Justice Stephen Gageler, ‘Beyond the Text: A Vision of the Structure and Function of the Constitution’ (2009) 32 Australian Bar Review 138, 152.
231. Davis (n 16) [38]–[40] (Kenny J); [166] ff (Mortimer J).
232. (1988) 164 CLR 261 (‘Richardson’).
233. Gerhardy (n 132) 139.
234. [2003] 1 AC 153.
235. Belmarsh Detainees (n 224) 102 [29] (Lord Bingham).
236. Andrew Edgar, ‘Structured Proportionality, Unreasonableness and Managing the Line between Executive and Judicial Functions’ (2021) 32 Public Law Review 204.
237. Gerhardy (n 132) 138 (Brennan J).
238. Ibid 139 (Brennan J).
239. Richardson (n 232) 296 (Mason CJ and Brennan J).
240. Lord Mance, ‘Justiciability’ (2018) 67(4) International & Comparative Law Quarterly 739, 757.
241. Sim (n 107) 122.
242. Ibid 124; Mason (n 3) 793–4.
243. (1937) 58 CLR 528.
244. Ibid 549 (Latham CJ).
245. Murray Gleeson AC QC, ‘Global Influences on the Australian Judiciary’ (Speech, Australian Bar Association Conference, 8 July 2002).
246. Francis Hutley, ‘The Legal Traditions of Australia as Contrasted with Those of the United States’ (1981) 55 Australian Law Journal 63, 69.
247. Mance (n 240) 757.
248. Ibid.