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Termination of Appointments to Public Offices

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Enid Campbell
Enid Campbell*
Affiliation:
Monash University
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Extract

Persons employed within the public (that is, governmental) sector are employed under a variety of legal arrangements. Some are employed under contracts of employment or as independent contractors. Some are employed as members of a government service such as a public service, a police service or a teaching service, pursuant to detailed legislative provisions. A few may be employed solely under the common law relating to service under the Crown. Some are persons who have been appointed to public offices, that is positions which exist separately from the persons who hold office and to which particular powers and duties are attached. Some are both members of a government service and holders of public offices. Terms and conditions of employment within the public sector may also be affected by industrial awards, awards made by remuneration tribunals and general legislation on employment.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 24 , Issue 1 , March 1996 , pp. 1 - 41
Copyright
Copyright © 1996 The Australian National University

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References

1 The concept of public office is examined more fully below at 6-9.

2 See McCarry, G J, Aspects of Public Sector Employment Law (1988) at 24-7 and 142-8Google Scholar.

3 Eg, anti-discrimination legislation and legislation on unfair dismissal. See 102 Social Club and Institute Ltd v Bickerton [1977] ICR 911; Barthorpe v Exeter Diocesan Board of Finance [1979] ICR 900.

4 The common law on surrender of public offices is dealt with in Marks v Commonwealth (1964) 114 CLR 549.

5 See the following articles by Justice Kirby, MD: “Judicial Independence and Justice Staples” (1989) No 68 Vic Bar News 18Google Scholar; “ The Removal of Justice Staples and the Silent Forces of Industrial Relations” (1989) 31 Jo Industrial Relations 334CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “ The Removal of Justice Staples ...” (1990) 6 Aust Bar Rev 1Google Scholar; “ Wreckers at Work” (1994) 19 Alternative Law Jo 103Google Scholar.

6 The federal Parliament cannot abolish the office of Justice of the High Court of Australia:Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, Chap III.

7 Eg, Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (Vic), s 11.

8 Eg, Civil Aviation Act 1988 (Cth), s 42(1).

9 Coutts v Commonwealth (1984) 59 ALR 699.

10 Osgood v Nelson (1872) LR 5 HL 636. On the meaning of “misbehaviour”, see “ Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry: Re The Honourable Mr Justice Murphy” (1986) 2 Aust Bar Rev 203Google Scholar.

11 Director-General of Education (NSW) v Suttling (1986) 162 CLR 427.

12 Ibid at 442.

13 (1977) 16 SASR 350.

14 Ibid at 359-60 and 367-8.

15 (1982) 43 ALR 25.

16 Ibid at 32 and 37.

17 The Court also noted that the University had not legislated under s 27(1)(g) of the Act on the manner of appointment and dismissals.

18 (1833) 9 Bing 692; 131 ER 773.

19 48 Geo III c 1, s 10.

20 9 Bing 692 at 706; 131 ER 773 at 779.

21 Ibid.

22 Ibid at 704, 778.

23 Ibid at 706, 779.

24 Ibid at 710, 781.

25 Ibid at 709, 781.

26 (1854) 8 Moo PCC 138; 14 ER 53.

27 Ibid at 155, 59.

28 The legislation is discussed below at 5-9.

29 [1978] 2 NSWLR 423.

30 Sections 31, 32, 37.

31 Section 44(1).

32 [1978] 2 NSWLR 423 at 429.

33 28 February, 1983, reported in The Times 1 March 1983.

34 National Health Service (Community Health Councils) Regulations 1973 (SI 1973/2217) as amended in 1982 (SI 1982/37).

35 Regulation 10.

36 Cf George v Minister for Education and Youth (1989) 18 ALD 578; see below at 10.

37 (1979) 24 ALR 307 at 329-30.

38 See below at 10-28.

39 The prototype of this provision was s 9 of the Acts Shortening Act 1852 (NSW).

40 Acts Interpretation Act 1954 (Qld), s 24; Interpretation Act 1967 (ACT), s 28.

41 Acts Interpretation Act 1915 (SA), s 36; Acts Interpretation Act 1931 (Tas), s 21; Interpretation of Legislation Act 1984 (Vic), s 41; Interpretation Act 1984 (WA), s 52.

42 Section 47.

43 Section 44.

44 Palais Parking Station Pty Ltd v Shea (1977) 16 SASR 350; Australian National University v Burns (1982) 43 ALR 25; Australian Film Commission v Mabey (1985) 59 ALR 25.

45 Australian Film Commission v Mabey (1985) 59 ALR 25 at 33 per Bowen CJ and Fox J.

46 See: Napier, B, “Office and Office-Holder in British Labour Law” in Gamillscheg, F et al (eds), In Memoriam: Sir Otto Kahn-Freund (1980) 593 at 595-9Google Scholar; Finn, PD, “Public Officers: Some Personal Liabilities” (1977) 51 ALJ 313 at 314Google Scholar.

47 Eg, Ocean Crest Shipping Co v Pilbara Harbour Services Pty Ltd (1986) 160 CLR 626.

48 Eg, AG (NSW) v Perpetual Trustee Co (Ltd) (1955) 92 CLR 113.

49 See G J McCarry, above n 2 at 15.

50 Ibid at 14. See also Robarts v London Corporation (1882) 46 LT 623; (1883) 49 LT 455 (CA).

51 Great Western Railway Co v Bater (Surveyor of Taxes) [1920] 3 KB 255 at 274 per Rowlatt J.

52 Edwards (Inspector of Taxes) v Clinch [1982] AC 845 at 861 per Lord Wilberforce.

53 Ibid. See also McMillan v Guest [1942] AC 561 at 564 per Lord Atkin.

54 (1977) 16 SASR 350 at 359.

55 [1960] Ch 498 at 530.

56 (1977) 16 SASR 350 at 359.

57 Ibid.

58 Eg, Social Security Act 1991 (Cth), s 1295.

59 See G J McCarry, above n 2 at 21-2.

60 Australian Film Commission v Mabey (1985) 59 ALR 25.

61 On public servants as employees, see G J McCarry, above n 2 at 18-21. See also Australian National University v Burns (1982) 43 ALR 25.

62 Fletcher v Nott (1938) 60 CLR 55; Laird v Municipality of Portland [1968] Tas SR 90; Mansfield v Blenheim Borough Council [1923] NZLR 842.

63 Smyth v Latham (1833) 9 Bing 692; 131 ER 773; Hill v The Queen (1854) 8 Moo PCC 133; 14 ER 53; Palais Parking Station Pty Ltd v Shea (1977) 16 SASR 350; Australian National University v Burns (1982) 43 ALR 25 at 36-7 and 39-40.

64 Eg, Palais Parking Station Pty Ltd v Shea (1977) 16 SASR 350.

65 Above n 62.

66 Fletcher v Nott (1938) 60 CLR 55.

67 Geddes v McGrath (1933) 50 CLR 520; Director-General of Education v Suttling (1986) 162 CLR 427;cf George v Minister for Education and Youth (1989) 18 ALD 578.

68 Geddes v McGrath (1933) 50 CLR 520. See also Interpretation Act 1987 (NSW), s 47.

69 (1982) 43 ALR 25.

70 See above at 3.

71 (1982) 43 ALR 25 at 39-40.

72 Ibid at 40.

73 Public Sector Management Act 1988 (NSW), s 4 and Part 8; Public Sector Management Act 1992(Vic), s 5 and Part 9.

74 The exceptions cover, inter alia, judges and magistrates, police officers, and persons holding office under an Act that provides that the holder “may or must be removed from office following an address, declaration, resolution or other involvement of either or both of the Houses of Parliament”.

75 Marks v Commonwealth (1964) 111 CLR 549 at 586 and 587 per Windeyer J.

76 See below at 13.

77 Eg, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, s 64 (Ministers of State); s 72 (federal judges).

78 Gould v Stuart [1896] AC 575.

79 Ryder v Foley (1906) 4 CLR 422; Kaye v Attorney-General (Tas) (1956) 94 CLR 193; R v Wilson; Ex parte Donaldson (1977) 19 ALR 235 at 245 and 253; Commissioner of Police v Gordon [1987] 1 NSWLR 675 at 681.

80 (1989) 18 ALD 578.

81 University and University Colleges Act 1900 (NSW), s 9.

82 Interpretation Act 1897 (NSW), s 30, read in con1unction with s 30(1) of the Interpretation Act 1987 (NSW).

83 (1844) 6 QB 682; 115 ER 257.

84 Ibid at 690, 261.

85 Ibid at 695-6, 263.

86 Ibid at 717-8, 271.

87 Cf Australian National University v Burns (1982) 43 ALR 25.

88 Laird v Municipality of Portland [1968] Tas SR 90 and cases cited there in.

89 Mansfield v Blenheim Borough Council [1923] NZLR 842 at 852-3.

90 See above nn 88 and 89.

91 (1982) 43 ALR 25.

92 Eg, deans of faculties.

93 (1985) 3 NSWLR 427.

94 Ibid at 446-7.

95 Ibid at 447. In the ensuing appeal to the High Court ((1986) 162 CLR 427), the correctness of this view was not considered.

96 (1985) 3 NSWLR 427 at 447.

97 See above at 4-5.

98 Eg, Civil Aviation Act 1988 (Cth), s 42(2).

99 Ibid, s 42(1).

100 Market Court Act 1975 (Vic), s 6(2).

101 For examples of what “facts” have been held to be “facts” on the existence of which a power or jurisdiction depends, see Wade, H W R and Forsyth, C F, Administrative Law (7th ed 1994) at 286-95Google Scholar.

102 Eg, Hughes and Vale Pty Ltd v New South Wales (No 2) (1955) 95 CLR 127 at 156-7; Ziems v The Prothonotary of the Supreme Court of New South Wales (1957) 97 CLR 279; Trivett v Nivison [1976] 1 NSWLR 312 at 316-7; Re Guild and Re Legal Practitioners Ordinance 1970 (1978) 32 ACTR 13; McMillan v Pharmaceutical Council of Western Australia [1983] WAR 166; Allinson v Council of Medical Education and Registration [1894] 1 QB 750 at 763; Ex parte Tziniolis; Re the Medical Practitioners Act (1967) 67 SR (NSW) 448; Battacharya v General Medical Council [1967] 2 AC 259; Faridian v General Medical Council [1971] AC 995; McEniff v General Dental Council [1980] 1 WLR 328; Basser v Medical Board of Victoria [1981] VR 953.

103 Eg, In re Fremington School; Ex parte Ward (1847) 11 Jur 421; Martin v Eccles Corporation [1919] 1 Ch 387; Hanson v Radcliffe Urban District Council [1922] 2 Ch 49; Sadler v Sheffield Corporation [1924] 1 Ch 483; Price v Sunderland Corporation [1956] 1 WLR 1253.

104 (1872) LR 5 HL 636.

105 15 & 16 Vic c 168, s 11.

106 The inquiry was conducted by a commitee.

107 (1872) LR 5 HL 636 at 649 per Lord Hatherley LC. See also at 647 per Martin B.

108 Ibid at 652 per Lord Colonsay.

109 Ibid.

110 Ibid at 654 per Lord Colonsay.

111 Ibid. See also at 648 per Martin B, 649 per Lord Hatherley LC, 650-1 per Lord Chelmsford and 652 per Lord Colonsay.

112 Section 3. Decisions by the Governor-General are not reviewable under the Act.

113 Australian Broadcasting Tribunal v Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 356 per Mason CJ, Brennan and Deane JJ concurring; see also at 358.

114 Ibid at 358.

115 See below at 20.

116 Hayman v Governors of Rugby School (1874) LR 18 Eq 28 at 70.

117 See Tracey, R R S, “Disqualified Adjudicators ― The Doctrine of Necessity in Public Law” [1982] Public Law 628Google Scholar.

118 In the sense that it is a sufficient answer to any proceedings for remedy to establish that the office was held at pleasure or will. See McVicar v Commissioner of Railways (NSW) (1951) 83 CLR 521 at 529.

119 Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for Civil Service [1985] 1 AC 374; R v Toohey; Ex parte Northern Land Council (1981) 151 CLR 170 at 218-20 per Mason J; Minister for Arts, Heritage and Environment v Peko-Wallsend Ltd (1987) 75 ALR 218. See also Wheeler, F, “Judicial Review of Prerogative Power in Australia” (1992) 14 Syd LR 432Google Scholar.

120 Doe d Day v Hadden (1783) 3 Doug 310; 99 ER 669; Dummer v Corporation of Chippendale (1807) 14 Ves 245; 33 ER 515; R v Governors of Darlington Free Grammar School; Ex parte Wray (1844) 6 QB 682 at 715; 115 ER 257 at 270; Hayman v Governors of Rugby School (1874) LR 18 Eq 28 at 78 and 85 per Mallins VC; Short v Poole Corporation [1926] Ch 66 at 90 and 91.

121 R v Oxford Corporation (1696) 2 Salk 428; 191 ER 372; R v Ipswich (Bailiffs) (1706) 2 Ld Raym 1233 at 1240; 92 ER 313 at 317-8; Hayman v Governors of Rugby School (1874) LR 18 Eq 28 at 68-9 and 75.

122 Eg, under s 13 of the Administrative Decisions Gudicial Review) Act 1978 (Cth) in respect of decisions reviewable under that Act.

123 (1951) 83 CLR 521.

124 Ibid at 530 per Dixon, Williams, Fullagar and Kitto JJ. See also ibid at 537-8 per Webb J. The majority's observations were made principally in relation to the decision in Short v Poole Corporation [1926] Ch 66.

125 R v Toohey; Ex parte Northern Land Council (1981) 151 CLR 170.

126 See Sawer, G, Federation under Strain (1977) at 147-50Google Scholar; Winterton, G, Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General (1983) at 128-33Google Scholar.

127 (1985) 156 CLR 353.

128 Ibid at 353, 354, 358-9, 362 and 363.

129 See below n 249.

130 Eg, Local Government Act 1958 (Vic), ss 158-60. This Act has been repealed.

131 Eg, Commonwealth of Australia Constitution, s 72; Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 (Cth), s 13(1) and other federal legislation listed in Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Report of the Joint Select Committee on Tenure of Appointees to Commonwealth Tribunals (PP 289 /89) at 32-3.

132 Eg, Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth), s 35.

133 Dean v Bennett (1871) LR 6 Ch App 489.

134 See below at 32-39.

135 On contractual duties to afford a fair hearing, see Dawkins v Antrobus (1881) 17 Ch D 615; Fisher v Keane (1878) 11 Ch D 853; Lawlor v Union of Post Office Workers [1965] Ch 712; Ridge v Baldwin [1964] AC 40 at 65; R v Eastern Berkshire Health Authority; Ex parte Walsh [1985] 1 QB 152.

136 See below at 20-21.

137 Bagg's Case (1615) 11 Co Rep 936; 77 ER 1271; Protector v Colchester Town (1655) Sty 452; 82 ER 855; R v Wilton (Mayor) (1697) 2 Salk 428; R v Ipswich (Bailiffs) (1705) 2 Ld Raym 1233; 92 ER 315; R v Gaskin (1799) 8 Term R 209; 101 ER 1349; R v Smith (1844) 5 QB 614; 114 ER 1381; Willis v Gipps (1846) 3 Moo PCC 379; 13 ER 536; Willis v Childe (1851) 13 Beav 117; 51 ER 117; Ex parte Ramshay (1852) 18 QB 173; 118 ER 65; Osgood v Nelson (1872) LR 5 HL 639; Fisher v Jackson [1891] 2 Ch 84; Cooper v Wilson [1937] 2 KB 309.

138 Willis v Gipps (1846) 3 Moo PCC 379; 13 ER 536; Montague v Van Diemen's Land (Lieutenant Governor) (1849) 6 Moo PCC 489; 13 ER 773.

139 H W R Wade and CF Forsyth, above n 101 at 557. See also Malloch v Aberdeen Corporation [1971] 1 WLR 1578 at 1595-6 and 1582.

140 [1964] AC 40.

141 Ibid at 65-6.

142 Ibid at 65.

143 [1971] 1 WLR 1578.

144 Ibid at 1582, 1598 and 1599.

145 Ibid at 1595.

146 Ibid at 1595-6.

147 Ibid at 1596.

148 (1985) 59 ALR 699 per Wilson, Brennan and Dawson JJ.

149 Here Air Force Regulations 1927, reg 628(1).

150 (1985) 59 ALR 699 at 707.

151 Ibid.

152 [1971] 1 WLR 1578 at 1589. See also George v Minister for Education and Youth Affairs (1989) 18 ALD 578 at 586.

153 Above n 101 at 563.

154 Ibid at 562.

155 Ibid at 562-3.

156 [1971] 1 WLR 1578 at 1582 per Lord Reid (“[I]t seems to me perfectly sensible for Parliament to say to a public body: you need not give formal reasons but you must hear the man before you dismiss him”); and at 1597 per Lord Wilberforce (“[T]he very possibility of dismissal without reason being given - action which may vitally affect a man's career or pension – makes it all the more important for him, in suitable circumstances, to be able to state his case ... “).

157 See Suttling v Director-General of Education (1985) 3 NSWLR 427 at 439-40 per Kirby P.

158 Kioa v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1985) 159 CLR 550.

159 Ibid at 611 per Brennan J.

160 Ibid.

161 (1985) 59 ALR 699.

162 [1974] VR 173.

163 Ibid at 177-84.

164 Ibid at 175-6.

165 [1938] 1 KB 98 at 117.

166 (1985) 59 ALR 699.

167 Air Force Regulations 1927, reg 628(1).

168 (1985) 59 ALR 699 at 700.

169 Ibid at 715.

170 Ibid at 716.

171 Ibid.

172 (1982) 151 CLR 342.

173 Ibid at 349-50 per Gibbs CJ, 355-6 per Stephen J, 366 and 371 per Mason J, 383 per Aickin J,and 400-1 per Wilson J.

174 See above n 138 and Willis v Maitland (1829) 5 Moo PCC 388; 13 ER 540. See also cases referred to by Gibbs CJ in FIA Insurance Ltd v Winneke (1982) 151 CLR 342 at 350.

175 Geo III c 75 (1787).

176 [1967) 2 NSWR 746.

177 For an explanation of the term “defaulting area”, see ibid at 748.

178 On quo warranto, see below n 249.

179 Shortly before the proclamation one of the councillors had been convicted of accepting a bribe.

180 [1967) 2 NSWR 746 at 748.

181 Ibid at 750.

182 Ibid.

183 Ibid.

184 [1967) 2 AC 337.

185 [1967] 2 NSWR 746 at 750.

186 [1967] 2 AC 337 at 351.

187 Duncan v Theodore (1917) 23 CLR 510 at 544; Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 179-80 and 279-81.

188 See above n 125.

189 Eg, Safety, Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 1988 (Cth), s 84(2).

190 Anderson v Director-General of Education [1978] 2 NSWLR 423.

191 Holt v Mendlicott (1676) Freem KB 428; 89 ER 319.

192 See above at 18-19.

193 Smyth v Latham (1833) 9 Bing 692 at 710 and 711; 131 ER 773 at 780 and 781; Ex parte Chung (1861) 2 Legge 1458.

194 Sir George Reynel's Case (1611) 9 Co Rep 95a; 77 ER 871.

195 Chitty, J, Treatise on the Law of the Prerogatives of the Crown (1820) at 87Google Scholar. See also Shetreet, S, Judges on Trial (1976) at 152-3Google Scholar.

196 S Shetreet, above n 195 at 152-5.

197 Brynner v The Queen (1846) 9 QB 523 at 550; 115 ER 1373 at 1388. See also R v The Eastern Archipeligo Co (1854) 4 De GM&G 198 at 205; 43 ER 483 at 485-6.

198 First schedule, s 1(3).

199 S Shetreet, above n 195 at 155.

200 R v Hughes (1865) LR 1 PC 1.

201 See above at 19.

202 Hunkin v Siebert (1934) 51 CLR 538 at 541-2.

203 See above at 5.

204 Hunkin v Siebert (1934) 51 CLR 538 at 541-2.

205 R v Little; Ex parte Fong [1983] VR 237.

206 Commissioner of Police v Gordon [1981] 1 NSWLR 675 at 687; Furnell v Whangerei High Schools Board [1973] AC 660.

207 See HWR Wade and CF Forsyth, above n 101 at 560-1.

208 Birss v Secretary for Justice [1984] 1 NZLR 513.

209 Halcrow v Port Macquarie Shire Council [1979] 1 NSWLR 64 at 76.

210 Director-General of Education v Suttling (1986) 162 CLR 427 at 442.

211 Ibid.

212 Day v Hunkin (1938) 61 CLR 65.

213 Eg, Public Service Act 1922 (Cth), ss 27 and 42.

214 The letters patent constituting the office of Governor-General are, however, separate from the letters patent commissioning incumbents of the office.

215 Young v Waller [1898] AC 661.

216 R v Toohey; Ex parte Northern Land Council (1981) 151 CLR 170.

217 After New South Wales v Commonwealth (1915) 20 CLR 54, no appointments were made to the Inter-State Commission (pursuant to s 103 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution) to fill vacancies which arose when the terms of members expired.

218 Reilly v The King [1934] AC 176.

219 Eg, Government and Related Employees Appeal Tribunal Act 1980 (NSW), ss 71-73.

220 Such a clause probably would not be construed as an illegitimate fetter on the statutory power to abolish the office. On fettering of discretions by contract, see Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1977) 139 CLR 54 at 74-7 per Mason J.

221 Eg, the legislation discussed in Re Rogers; Ex parte Lewis (1878) 4 VLR (L) 334.

222 Breen v Amalgamated Engineering Union [1971] 2 QB 175 at 191 per Lord Denning MR. For exceptional cases, see Cole v Cunningham (1983) 49 ALR 123; Khoury v Grey (1984) 57 ALR 53.

223 McCrae v Attorney-General (NSW) (1987) 9 NSWLR 268. After the Court's decision, the Attorney-General decided that applications for appointments as magistrates would be considered solely on their merits. This change of policy was upheld by a majority of the High Court in Attorney-General (NSW) v Quin (1990) 170 CLR 1 and former magistrates whose applications for appointment under the Local Courts Act 1982 were still pending were held to have no legitimate expectations which would attract a right to procedural fairness.

224 This suggested principle was qualified in an earlier para in the report which recognised that there could be “demonstrably good reasons” for not re-appointing a person: ibid at para 5.22.

225 Report of the Joint Select Committee on Tenure of Appointees to Commonwealth Tribunals (PP 289 /89) at para 5.27.

226 Ibid at para 5.28.

227 Eg, Commonwealth of Australia Constitution ss 20, 30, 45.

228 This course is not, however, open when the statutory provisions for vacation of office are entrenched in a constitution having the force of a paramount law.

229 Chitty, J, Treatise on the Law of the Prerogative of the Crown (1820) at 85-6Google Scholar.

230 Ibid at 87. See also above at 27-28.

231 This article does not explore the impact of the exclusivity principle, which operates in England, but not in Australia. Broadly speaking, this principle requires those who contest the validity of decisions affecting their positions as holders of public offices to seek remedy by way of an application for judicial review under s 31 of the Supreme Court Act 1981 (UK), and Order 53 of the Rules of the Supreme Court, rather than by ordinary action, including by suit for a declaration and/or injunction. The exclusivity principle necessitates discrimination between those aspects of employment and office-holding governed by public law and those governed by private law. See the following articles by Fredman, S and Morris, G: '"Public or Private?' State Employees and Judicial Review” (1991) 107 LQR 298Google Scholar; “ Is There a Public/Private Labour Law?” (1993) 14 Comparative Labour Law Jo 115Google Scholar; “ The Costs of Exclusivity: Public and Private Re-examined” [1994] Public Law 69Google Scholar. See also Sedley, Justice, “Public Law and Contractual Employment” (1994) 23 Industrial Law Jo 201CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

232 As under the Rules of the Supreme Court of New South Wales and under the General Rules of Procedure in Civil Proceedings of the Supreme Court of Victoria.

233 Bagg's Case (1615) 11 Co Rep 93 b; 77 ER 1271; Audley's Case (1625) Noy 78; 74 ER 1045; London (Clerk of City Works) Case (1658) 2 Sid 112; 82 ER 1285; R v Barnard (1668) 2 Keb 402; 84 ER 252; Trott's Case (1670) 2 Keb 693; 84 ER 436; R v Taylor (1694) 3 Salk 231; 91 ER 795; R v Chester Corporation; Dyason's Case (1694) Comb 287; 90 ER 482; R v Bailiffs of Ipswich (1706) 2 Salk 435; 91 ER 378; R v Wells (1767) 4 Burr 1999; 98 ER 41. See also 1(1) Halsbury's Laws of England (4th ed), title “Administrative Law” at paras 92-5 and Australian Commentary (1989) at C 92-5.

234 London (Clerk of City Works) Case (1658) 2 Sid 112; 82 ER 1285;Middleton's Case (1663) 1 Sid 169; 82 ER 1037; Anon (1728) 1 Barn KB 123; 94 ER 85; R v Croydon (Churchwardens) (1794) 5 Term Rep 713; 101 ER 396. See also BL Napier, above n 46 at 596-7.

235 Blagrave's Case (1658) 2 Sid 72; 82 ER 1264; Dighton v Stratford-on-Avon Corporation (1670) 1 Sid 461; 82 ER 1217; R v Cambridge Corporation (1679) 2 Show 69; 89 ER 799; R v Thame (Churchwardens) (1718) 1 Stra 115; 93 ER 419; R v Bodmin Corporation [1892] 2 QB 21; R v Melbourne Harbour Trust; Ex parte Dedekind [1913] VLR 258. Cf R v Oxford Corporation (1696) 2 Salk 428; 91 ER 372 (office held at will, but return to writ stated ground of removal).

236 R v Baines (1706) 2 Ld Raym 1265; 92 ER 332.

237 An order in the nature of mandamus, to restore a person to a public office, might nevertheless be made under legislation such as the Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth) which makes error of law a ground for judicial review.

238 Aronson, M and Franklin, N, Review of Administrative Action (1987) at 492-500Google Scholar; Harding, A J, Public Duties and Public Law (1989) at 87-p96Google Scholar.

239 Eg, Bagg's Case (1615) 11 Co Rep 93b; 77 ER 1271; R v Halifax (City); Re Stevens (1915) 49 NSR289.

240 [1982] 1 WLR 1155.

241 Ibid at 1176.

242 Ibid.

243 [1964] AC 40.

244 [1982] 1 WLR 1155 at 1163.

245 Ibid.

246 Ibid.

247 Ibid.

248 English authorities are listed in 1(1) Halsbury's Laws of England (4th ed), title “Administrative Law” at paras 95 and 174 and Australian in the Australian Commentary (1989) on the title at C 95. The leading Australian case is R v Public Service Commission; Ex parte Killeen (1914) 18 CLR 586. See also R v Public Service Board of the State of Victoria; Ex parte McDonald [1948] VLR 310. There mandamus was granted to compel appointment of a person to an office, notwithstanding that someone else had been appointed to the office. The person appointed had not, however, taken up the appointment, or even been notified of it.

249 On quo warranto and remedies in lieu thereof, see 1(1) Halsbury's Laws of England (4th ed) title “Administrative Law” paras 266 et seq and the Australian Commentary (1989) on the title C 169-81. In England, New South Wales and Victoria injunctions have replaced quo warranto proceedings: see Supreme Court Act 1981 (UK), s 30; Supreme Court Act 1970 (NSW), ss 12, 70; General Rules of Procedure in Civil Proceedings 1986 (Vic),0 56 r 38.04.

250 R v Axbridge Corporation (1777) 2 Cowp 523; 98 ER 1220; R v London Corporation (1787) 2 Term Rep; 100 ER 96; Montague v Van Diemen's Land (Lieutenant-Governor) (1849) 6 Moo PCC 489; 13 ER 773. Later cases reveal differences of judicial opinion over whether remedy for breaches of duties to afford a fair hearing should be denied when the reviewing court concludes that a fair hearing would not have affected the outcome. The preferred view now seems to be that a remedy should not be denied on this ground alone. See cases referred to in M Aronson and N Franklin, above n 238 at 121-2. See also Dunlop v Woollahra Municipal Council [1975] 2 NSWLR 446 at 480-1; DH Clark, “Natural Justice: Substance or Shadow?” [1975] Public Law 27 at 43 et seq.

251 R v Home Secretary; Exp Benwell [1985] QB 554..

252 In Ridge v Baldwin [1964] AC 60, the Chief Constable who had been wrongfully removed from office did not seek re-instatement, merely a declaration that his removal from office was void. This remedy was sufficient to protect his pension rights.

253 [1980] Qd R 567.

254 [1982] 1 WLR 1155.

255 [1980] Qd R 567 at 580.

256 The traditional view has been that contracts of employment are not specifically enforceable, whether by specific performance or other orders. See Francis v Kuala Lumpur Councillors [1962] 1 WLR 1411; Gordon v State of Victoria [1981] VR 235. But courts in recent years have stressed that there is no inflexible rule. See Gregory v Philip Morris Ltd (1988) 80 ALR 455 at 481-2; Bostik (Australia) Pty Ltd v Gorgevski (1992) 4 IR 452 at 467-9; Reilly v Victoria (1991) 5 VIR 1. See further G F Smith, Public Employment Law (1987) at 177-83; S Fredman and G Morris, “'Public or Private?' State Employees and Judicial Review” (1991) 107 LQR 298 at 299.

257 Eg, Short v Poole Corporation [1926] Ch 66. See also McVicar v Commissioner of Railways (NSW) (1951) 83 CLR 521.

258 Smith v Macnally [1912] 1 Ch 816; Martin v Eccles Corporation [1919] 1 Ch 387; Sadler v Sheffield Corporation [1924] 1 Ch 483; Cooper v Wilson [1937] 2 KB 309; Price v Sutherland Corporation [1956] 1 WLR 1253; Vine v National Dock Labour Board [1957] AC 488; Ridge v Baldwin 1964] AC 40; Howes v Gosford Shire Council (1961) 78 WN (NSW) 981; Anderson v Director-General of Education [1978] 2 NSWLR 423; Director-General of Education v Suttling (1986) 162 CLR 427.

259 George v Minister for Education and Youth Affairs (1989) 18 ALD 578.

260 For instance, the evidence on which the appeal tribunal is to decide may be limited to that before the body deciding at first instance.

261 Calvin v Carr [1980] AC 574.

262 22 Geo III c 76, s 2.

263 3& 4 Will IV c 41, s 3.

264 Willis v Gipps (1846) 5 Moo PCC 379; 13 ER 536; Montague v Van Diemen's Land (LieutenantGovernor) (1849) 6 Moo PCC 489; 13 ER 773.

265 Cloete v The Queen (1854) 8 Moo PCC 484; 14 ER 184.

266 Moo PCC 484,492; 14 ER 184, 187.

267 Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act 1968 (Cth); Privy Council (Appeals from the High Court) Act 1975 (Cth); Australia Act 1986 (Cth and UK).

268 [1982] 1 WLR 1155.

269 Ibid at 1163.

270 Ibid.

271 Ibid at 1175.

272 Ibid at 1175-6.

273 Ibid at 1176.

274 Wentworth v Woollahra Municipal Council (1982) 149 CLR 672.

275 See Campbell, E, “Liability to Compensate for Denial of a Right to a Fair Hearing” (1989) 15 Mon LR 383Google Scholar.

276 Zamulinski v The Queen (1957) 10 DLR (2d) 685; Peck v The Queen [1964] Ex CR 966; Hopson v The Queen [1966] Ex CR 608; Mancuso Estate v The Queen [1980] 1 FC 269; affd sub nom The Queen in Right of Canada v Greenway (1981) 122 DLR (3d) 554. In Zamulinski the cause of action was identified simply as violation of a right. Ashby v White (1703) 2 Ld Raym 938; 92 ER 126; (1704) 3 Ld Raym 320; 92 ER 710; 14 St Tr 695 was cited as authority. On the insufficiency of this case to support the view that breach of a right to natural justice is actionable see E Campbell, above n 275 at 388-90.

277 [1989] AC 1228.

278 R v Chief Constable of Merseyside Police; Ex parte Calveley [1986] QB 424.

279 On re-instatement, the officers were paid arrears of salary and allowances.

280 [1989] AC 1228 at 1236.

281 Ibid at 1237. Cf Macksville & District Hospital v Mayze [1987] 10 NSWLR 708, discussed in E Campbell, above n 275 at 423-5.

282 See G J McCarry, above n 2 at 181-4; G F Smith, above n 256 at 128-31.

283 See above at 31.