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Watch This Space: The Development of Commercial Space Law in Australia and New Zealand

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2025

Joel Lisk  and
Melissa de Zwart
Joel Lisk*
Affiliation:
Adelaide Law School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
Melissa de Zwart*
Affiliation:
Adelaide Law School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
*
The author may be contacted at joel.lisk@adelaide.edu.au.
The author may be contacted at melissa.dezwart@adelaide.edu.au.
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Abstract

Space law is regulated largely by international treaties which have little to say regarding the use and regulation of commercial space. As the costs of access to outer space decrease and the benefits exponentially increase, more countries are seeking to support and encourage ‘NewSpace’ entrepreneurs in order to establish commercial space industries. Australia has been a minor player in the space domain, primarily through involvement with Europe and the US since the late 1960s, but its domestic legislation bears little relevance to the shape of space industry today. Australia’s neighbour, New Zealand, now wants to become a NewSpace incubator and has recently enacted legislation designed to make it a competitive host nation for launch providers. This article will compare the regulatory space regimes of these two countries to provide an assessment of the importance of domestic regulation in fostering competitive commercial space services, for countries seeking to become competitive in the commercial space race.

Type
Articles
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 47 , Issue 3 , September 2019 , pp. 444 - 468
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 The Author(s)

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References

Notes

1. Jessica West (ed), Space Security Index 2017 (Report, May 2017) 82.

2. Space Activities Act 1998 (Cth) (‘SAA’). CubeSats (cube satellites) are small satellites that are composed of 10 cm3 units.

3. Rocket Lab conducted two successful orbital launches in 2018 from its Mahia Peninsula launch site: Rocket Lab, ‘Rocket Lab Successfully Reaches Orbit and Deploys Payloads’ (Media Release, 21 January 2018) <https://www.rocketlabusa.com/news/updates/rocket-lab-successfully-reaches-orbit-and-deploys-payloads-january-21-2018/>; Rocket Lab, ‘Rocket Lab Reaches Orbit Again, Deploys More Satellites’ (Media Release, 11 November 2018) <https://www.rocketlabusa.com/news/updates/rocket-lab-reaches-orbit-again-deploys-more-satellites/>.

4. NewSpace is a term used to describe the newer entrants to the space industry: those focused on developing innovative and lower cost technologies while being highly responsive to market demands. Such companies tend to be small, willing to experiment with new materials and are integrated across the supply chain. See Michael Smart, ‘Old vs New: The Next Generation of the Space Industry’, The Conversation (online), 26 September 2016 <https://theconversation.com/old-vs-new-the-next-generation-of-the-space-industry-64793>.

5. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of the States in the Exploration and use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature 27 January 1967, 610 UNTS 205 (entered into force 10 October 1967) (‘Outer Space Treaty’).

6. Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, opened for signature 22 April 1968, 672 UNTS 331 (entered into force 3 December 1968) (‘Rescue Agreement’).

7. Convention on International Liability for Damage Cause by Space Objects, opened for signature 29 March 1972, 961 UNTS 187 (entered into force 1 September 1972) (‘Liability Convention’).

8. Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, opened for signature 14 January 1974, 1023 UNTS 15 (entered into force 15 September 1976) (‘Registration Convention’).

9. Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature 18 December 1979, 1363 UNTS 3 (entered into force 11 July 1984) (‘Moon Agreement’).

10. Frans von der Dunk, ‘International Space Law’ in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (eds), Handbook of Space Law (Edward Elgar, 2015) 29, 38–9.

11. He Qizhi, ‘The Outer Space Treaty in Perspective’ (1997) 40 Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space 51, 53; Francis Lyall and Paul B Larsen, Space Law: A Treatise (Routledge, 2nd ed, 2018) 54. But see Michael Schmitt ‘International Law and Military Operations in Space’ in Armin von Bogdandy and Rüdiger Wolfram (eds), Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law (Koninklike Brill N.V., 2006) vol 10, 99, who argues that the accepted body of customary international law is restricted to the free use of space by all states, the prohibition on claims of sovereignty and (most probably) the obligation to rescue astronauts in distress.

12. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: Legal Subcommittee, Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2017, 56th sess, Agenda Item 5, UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/2017/CRP.7 (23 March 2017) 1, 12.

13. Ibid.

14. United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (‘UNCOPUOS’), Question of the peaceful use of Outer Space, GA Res 1348 (XIII), UN GAOR, 13th sess, 792nd plen mtg, UN Doc A/RES/1348(XIII) (13 December 1958).

15. United Nations Secretary-General, Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, New York, 12 November 1974: New Zealand: Accession, GAOR, UN Doc C.N.47.2018.TREATIES-XXIV.1 (23 January 2018).

16. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: Legal Subcommittee, Unedited Transcript, 629th mtg, Agenda Item 8, UN Doc COPUOS/LEGAL/T.629, 3; statement by the Australian Delegate Mr C Cannan: ‘Being far from universal, the Moon Agreement cannot currently be considered to be a part of the international space law regime in any active sense…the very low level of ratification of the Moon Agreement seems to indicate that the treaty does not embody a set of principles common to most Member States.’

17. M L James, ‘Into Space From Australia — the Early Days’ (Conference Paper, National Conference on Engineering Heritage, 3–5 December 1990) 53, 54; Senate Standing Committee on Economics, Parliament of Australia, Lost in Space? Setting a New Direction for Australia’s Space Science and Industry Sector (Report, November 2008) 25–6 (‘Lost in Space?’). See also Melissa de Zwart and Dale Stephens, ‘Non-Military Space Testing in the Woomera Prohibited Area: Opportunities for the Australian Space Industry?’ (2017) 45(1) Federal Law Review 39, 41.

18. Peter Morton, Fire Across the Desert (Commonwealth of Australia Department Defence Science and Technology, 2017) 12; Lost in Space?, above n 17, 25 [4.1]; Steven Freeland, ‘Reshaping Australia’s Space Policy and Regulation — Recent Developments’ (2012) 61(1) Zeitschrift für Luft- und Weltraumrecht 99.

19. Department of Defence (Cth), 2016 Defence White Paper (Report, 2016) 100.

20. Explanatory Memorandum, Space Activities Bill 1998 (Cth) 4 [1]; de Zwart and Stephens, above n 17, 58; Noel Siemon and Steven Freeland, ‘Regulation of Space Activities in Australia’ in Ram S Jakhu (ed), National Regulation of Space Activities (Springer, 2010) 37, 45.

21. Outer Space Treaty, above n 5, art VI: the requirement to authorise and supervise non-governmental entities in space.

22. Jos Heyman, ‘A Tale of Two Spaceports’, SatMagazine (online), May 2011, 36–46 <http://www.satmagazine.com/story.php?number=131406989>.

23. Siemon and Freeland, above n 20, 46; SAA, above n 2, s 3.

24. Space Activities (Amendment) Act 2002 (Cth).

25. James, above n 17, 55.

26. ‘CSIRO’s ASKAP Radio Telescope’, Australia Telescope National Facility (Web Page, 2016) <http://www.atnf.csiro.au/projects/askap/index.html>; Leah MacLennan, ‘Skynet Satellite Ground Station Opens in Adelaide to aid UK Military Communications’ ABC News (online), 16 May 2016 <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-05-16/skynet-satellite-ground-station-opens-in-adelaide/7419042>; Department of Industry, Innovation and Science (Cth), 2016 State of Space Report (Report, 2016) 28, 42.

27. Minister for Industry, Innovation and Science (Cth), ‘Atmosphere is Right for a Review of Our Space Activities’ (Media Release, 24 October 2015) <https://consult.industry.gov.au/space-activities/reform-of-the-space-activities-act-1998-and-associ/supporting_documents/Legislative%20Proposals%20Paper.pdf>.

28. Department of Industry, Innovation and Science (Cth), ‘Reform of the Space Activities Act 1998 and Associated Framework’ (Legislative Proposals Paper, 24 March 2017) 30 <https://industry.gov.au/industry/IndustrySectors/space/Documents/Legislative-Proposals-Paper.pdf>.

29. Space Activities Amendment (Launches and Returns) Act 2018 (Cth) ss 2, 110.

30. Review of Australia’s Space Industry Capability (Issues Paper, August 2017); Review of Australia’s Space Industry Capability: Report from the Expert Reference Group for the Review (Report, March 2018) <https://industry.gov.au/industry/IndustrySectors/space/Documents/FINAL_ERG-Review-Report_10-May_accessible.pdf>; Australian Government, Australian Government Response to the Review of Australia’s Space Industry Capability (Report, 2018) <https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/g/files/net3906/f/June%202018/document/pdf/review_of_australias_space_industry_capability_-_report_from_the_expert_reference_group.pdf>.

31. Minister for Industry, Innovation and Science (Cth), ‘Expert Review of Australia’s Space Industry Capabilities to Participate in Global Market’ (Media Release, 13 July 2017) <http://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/sinodinos/media-releases/expert-review-australias-space-industry-capabilities-participate>; Review of Australia’s Space Industry Capability: Report from the Expert Reference Group for the Review (Report, March 2018) <https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/g/files/net3906/f/June%202018/document/pdf/review_of_australias_space_industry_capability_-_report_from_the_expert_reference_group.pdf>.

32. Minister for Industry, Innovation and Science (Cth), ‘Turnbull Government to Establish National Space Agency’ (Media Release, 25 September 2017) <http://minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/sinodinos/media-releases/turnbull-government-establish-national-space-agency>. A detailed consideration of the likely scope, mandate and operation of the new Australian Space Agency is beyond the scope of this article, but see below at Part V for a brief discussion.

33. Frans von der Dunk, ‘Launching from “Down Under”: The New Australian Space Activities Act of 1998’ (2000) 43 Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space 132 (‘Launching from “Down Under”’).

34. Ibid 136.

35. Irmgard Marboe, ‘National Space Law’ in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (eds), Handbook of Space Law (Edward Elgar, 2015) 127, 134.

36. SAA, above n 2, s 18.

37. Ibid s 26.

38. Ibid s 35.

39. Ibid s 43.

40. Ibid s 46.

41. Ibid ss 11–15.

42. Space Activities Regulation 2001 (Cth).

43. Siemon and Freeland, above n 20, 49; SAA, above n 2, ss 15, 18.

44. SAA, above n 2, ss 26(3)(a), 27.

45. ‘Reform of the Space Activities Act 1998 and Associated Framework’, above n 28, 11.

46. SAA, above n 2, s 42.

47. Ibid s 46.

48. Tomoki Nakamura et al, ‘Itokawa Dust Particles: A Direct Link Between S-Type Asteroids and Ordinary Chondrites’ (2011) 333(6046) Science 1113; de Zwart and Stephens, above n 17, 56–7.

49. SAA, above n 2, s 46; Space Activities Regulation 2001 (Cth) reg 6.10; Siemon and Freeland, above n 20, 51.

50. Steven Joyce, ‘Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill — First Reading’ (House of Representatives, New Zealand, 18 October 2016) 717 NZPD 3676.

51. Chris Gebhardt, ‘Rocket Lab’s Electron Conducts Inaugural Flight from New Zealand’, NASA Spaceflight.com (online), 24 May 2017 <https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/05/rocket-labs-electron-inaugural-flight-new-zealand/>.

52. Rocket Lab, ‘Rocket Lab Reaches Orbit Again, Deploys More Satellites’ (Media Release, 11 November 2018) <https://www.rocketlabusa.com/news/updates/rocket-lab-reaches-orbit-again-deploys-more-satellites/>.

53. Rocket Lab, ‘Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1 Complete’ (Media Release, 27 September 2016) <https://www.rocketlabusa.com/latest/rocket-lab-launch-complex-1-ready-for-launches/>; Rocket Lab, ‘Rocket Lab Successfully Makes it into Space’ (Media Release, 25 May 2017) <https://www.rocketlabusa.com/latest/rocket-lab-successfully-makes-it-to-space-2/>.

54. New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, ‘Govt Signs Contract Authorising Rocket Lab Launches’ (Media Release, 16 September 2016) <http://www.mbie.govt.nz/about/whats-happening/news/2016/govt-signs-contract-authorising-rocket-lab-launches>; Agreement between the New Zealand Government and Rocket Lab Ltd New Zealand and Rocket Lab USA Inc (16 September 2016) cl 14 <http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/space/new-zealand-space-agency/document-image-library/folder-pdf-library/agreement-nz-government-rocket-lab-nz-usa.pdf>.

55. Agreement between the Government of New Zealand and the Government of the United States of America on Technology Safeguards Associated with United States Participation in Space Launches from New Zealand, signed 16 June 2016 (entered into force 12 December 2016) <https://www.treaties.mfat.govt.nz//search/details/t/3858/c_1 > (‘Technology Safeguards Agreement’); Steven Joyce and Murray McCully, ‘NZ-US Technology Safeguards Agreement Reached’ (Media Release, 14 June 2016) <https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/nz-us-technology-safeguards-agreement-reached>.

56. Technology Safeguards Agreement, above n 55, art III(3).

57. Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017 (NZ) s 2 (‘OSHAA’).

58. New Zealand Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment, Regulatory Impact Statement: Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill (2016) 10 [41]–[42], 14 [63] <https://www.mbie.govt.nz/assets/d16a2853fc/ris-outer-space-and-high-altitude-activities-bill-june-2016.pdf>.

59. OSHAA, above n 57, pt 2, sub-pts 1–5.

60. Ibid pt 2, sub-pt 6.

61. Ibid ss 15(2), 31(3).

62. Ibid (emphasis added).

63. Ibid s 66.

64. Outer Space and High-altitude Activities (Licences and Permits) Regulation 2017 (NZ).

65. This follows the United States, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Russia and South Africa; von der Dunk, ‘Launching from “Down Under”‘, above n 33, 132, 135.

66. UNOOSA, ‘National Space Law Collection’ (Web Page) <http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/nationalspacelaw/index.html> lists the following nations as having national space regimes: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, Kazakhstan, The Netherlands, Norway, Republic of Korea (South Korea), Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, United Kingdom and the United States. Marboe, above n 35, 182 also provides for Italy, India and Columbia. Denmark has also recently implemented their national space law, see Peter Hulsroj and Anja Nakarada Pecujlic ‘New in the Nest: The Danish Space Act’ (2016) 41(6) Air and Space Law 503. This provides for 26 nations to have national space laws.

67. Regulatory Impact Statement: Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill, above n 58, [37].

68. SAA, above n 2, s 3(c); OSHAA, above n 57, s 3(b).

69. Outer Space Treaty, above n 5, art VI.

70. Explanatory Memorandum, Space Activities Bill 1998 (Cth) 4 [1].

71. Ibid.

72. Loretta Hidalgo Whitesides, ‘NASA Terminates COTS Funds for Rocketplane Kistler’, Wired, 10 September 2007.

73. Explanatory Memorandum, Space Activities Bill 1998 (Cth) 4 [2].

74. Otto Koudelka, ‘Micro/Nano/Picosatellite-Activities: Challenges Towards Space Education and Utilisation’ in Irmgrd Marboe (ed), Small Satellites: Regulatory Challenges and Chances (Brill Nijhoff, 2016) 7: there is no definitive definition of small satellite.

75. See California Polytechnic State University ‘CubeSat Design Specification Rev 13’ CubeSat Developer Resources (Report, 6 April 2015) <http://www.cubesat.org/resources>.

76. Alan Shaw and Peter Rosher, ‘Micro Satellites: The Smaller the Satellites, the Bigger the Challenges?’ (2016) 41(4/5) Air and Space Law 311, 311; Erik Kulu, Nanosatellite Database (Web Page, 18 November 2017) <http://www.nanosats.eu>.

77. See, eg, Rocket Lab, Payload User’s Guide (April 2019) 26 <https://www.rocketlabusa.com/assets/Uploads/Rocket-Lab-Payload-Users-Guide-6.3.pdf>: payload capacity is based on orbit type and altitude, but the focus is on sub-200 kg payloads.

78. See above n 68.

79. von der Dunk, ‘Launching from “Down Under”’, above n 33, 132.

80. Space Activities (Amendment) Act 2002 (Cth).

81. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space; Legal Subcommittee, Unedited Transcript, 664th mtg, Agenda Item 6, UN Doc COPUOS/LEGAL/T.664 7.

82. SAA, above n 2, s 8 (definitions of ‘launch’, ‘launch vehicle’, ‘return’ and ‘space object’).

83. Hulsroj and Pecujlic, above n 66, 503, 504; Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: Legal Subcommittee, Summary of Information on National Practices and Legislation of States with Regard to the Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space, 53rd sess, Agenda Item 7(a), UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/2014/CRP.27 (25 March 2014) 11.

84. At international law, despite the increasing prevalence of space activities and regulation, there is no universally agreed upon demarcation of space, making the SAA’s 100 km definition significant.

85. OSHAA, above n 57, pt 2 sub-pt 6.

86. Ibid s 4 (definition of ‘high altitude’).

87. Civil Aviation Rules 2008 (NZ) 71.53.

88. Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, ‘The Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill’ (Department Report, 9 March 2017) 11; see discussion on the delimitation of space in von der Dunk ‘International Space Law’, above n 10, 29, 60–72.

89. SAA, above n 2, ss 11(a), 12(a), 13(a), 14(a).

90. OSHAA, above n 57, s 4 (definition of ‘Space Object’).

91. SAA, above n 2, s 8 (definition of ‘Space Object’): ‘a payload that the launch vehicle is to carry into or back from an area beyond, the distance of 100 km above mean sea level’ (emphasis added); see also Outer Space Act 1986 (UK) s 13(1) and Space Industry Act 2018 (UK) s 69(1) and its general use throughout this Act.

92. Space Industry Act 2018 (UK) s 8.

93. SAA, above n 2, ss 11, 15.

94. Ibid s 18.

95. Ibid s 26(1).

96. Ibid s 35.

97. Ibid ss 42, 46 (respectively).

98. Although SpaceX appears to have mastered the art of returning a rocket to its launch pad with high accuracy that makes the size of the return location almost irrelevant.

99. OSHAA, above n 57, ss 7, 15, 23 and 31.

100. Marboe, above n 35, 134.

101. Steven Freeland, Analysis Report: Public Submissions into the Australian Government’s Review of the Space Activities Act 1998 (August 2016) (‘Analysis Report’).

102. Ibid 48.

103. Ibid 52.

104. Ibid 55.

105. Recommendations on National Legislation Relevant to the Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space, GA Res 68/74, UN GAOR.

106. OSHAA, above n 57, s 52(1).

107. SAA, above n 2, ss 18(a), 26(3)(c), 43(3)(a).

108. OSHAA, above n 57, s 52(1).

109. See the New Zealand application processes for maritime licences, lawyer admission and vehicle inspection authorisations: ‘Fit and Proper Person’ Maritime New Zealand (Web Page) <https://www.maritimenz.govt.nz/commercial/safety/safety-management-systems/fit-and-proper-person.asp>; Lawyers and Conveyancer Acts 2006 (NZ) s 55; NZ Transport Authority, Fit and Proper Person Guidelines (Web Page, August 2011) <https://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/fit-and-proper-person/>.

110. OSHAA, above n 57, s 3.

111. Ibid s 52(3).

112. Ibid.

113. Companies Act 1993 (NZ).

114. Securities Markets Act 1988 (NZ) s 2 (definition of ‘Officer’) as repealed by Financial Markers (Repeals and Amendments) Act 2013 (NZ) s 4(1)(b).

115. Fran Barber, ‘Indirectly Directors: Duties Owed Below the Board’ (2014) 45 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 27.

116. Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) s 9 (definition of ‘Officer’); Shafron v Australian Securities and Investments Commission (2012) 247 CLR 465.

117. Outer Space and High-altitude Activities (Licences and Permits) Regulation 2017 (NZ) sch 2, cls 2(e)–(f), 3(c)–(d).

118. Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, ‘The Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill’, above n 88, [71].

119. OSHAA, above n 57, s 52; Outer Space and High-attitude Activities (Licences and Permits) Regulations 2017 (NZ) sch 3, cl 12.

120. SAA, above n 2, s 18(a), 26(3)(c), 43(3)(a).

121. R v Connell: Ex parte The Hetton Bellbird Collieries Ltd (1944) 69 CLR 407, 432.

122. Australian Constitution s 51(xx); Explanatory Memorandum, Space Activities Bill 1998 (Cth) 39.

123. SAA, above n 2, s 18(c).

124. See above n 109.

125. OSHAA, above n 57, s 52.

126. Outer Space Treaty, above n 5, art IX.

127. Space Debris Office, ‘Space Debris by the Numbers’, European Space Agency (Web Page, January 2017) <http://m.esa.int/Our_Activities/Operations/Space_Debris/Space_debris_by_the_numbers>.

128. Donald J Kessler and Burton G Cour-Palais, ‘Collision Frequency of Artificial Satellites: The Creation of a Debris Belt’ (1978) 83(A6) Journal of Geophysical Research 2637.

129. SAA, above n 2, s 18(b).

130. Analysis Report, above n 101, 85, 90, 155–6.

131. Space Activities Amendment (Launches and Returns) Act 2018 (Cth) sch 1, cls 34, 46G.

132. Sitael Australia, Submission No 2 to Senate Standing Committee on Economics, Parliament of Australia, Space Activities Amendment (Launches and Returns) Bill 2018 [Provisions] (July 2018) [2]; Adelaide Law School, University of Adelaide, Submission No 3 to Senate Standing Committee on Economics, Parliament of Australia, Space Activities Amendment (Launches and Returns) Bill 2018 [Provisions] (11 July 2018) 4.

133. Analysis Report, above n 101, 90.

134. Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill 2016 (NZ) 179–1 cl 88(1)(1); Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill 2016 (NZ) 179–2 cls 9(1)(ca), 17(1)(aa), 25(1)(ca), 33(1)(aa), 88(1)(1); Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill 2016 (NZ) 179–3 cls 9(1)(ca), 17(1)(aa), 25(1)(ca), 33(1)(aa), 88(1)(1); OSHAA, above n 57, ss 9(1)(c), 17(1)(b), 25(1)(c), 33(1)(b), 88(1)(1).

135. Oral evidence not available publicly; Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, ‘The Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill’, above n 88, [53]–[54]; Outer Space and High-altitude Activity Bill 2016 (NZ) 179–2, Commentary 5, cls 9(ca), 17(aa), 25(ca), 33(aa).

136. Charter of the United Nations art 2(7).

137. Marboe, above n 35, 134.

138. Recommendations on National Legislation Relevant to the Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space, GA Res 68/74, UN Doc A/RES/68/74 (16 December 2013) [2].

139. Australia frequently legislates in respect of its nationals while overseas, with a dominant example being the Crimes (Child Sex Tourism) Act 1994 (Cth).

140. SAA, above n 2, s 5.

141. OSHAA, above n 57, s 6(2).

142. ‘USC Satellite Database’, Union of Concerned Scientists (Web Page, 31 December 2016) <http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-weapons/space-weapons/satellite-database#.WWsBksbL1R4>.

143. Space Activities (Amendment) Act 2002 (Cth).

144. L F E Goldie, ‘Recognition and Dual Nationality — A Problem of Flags of Convenience’ (1963) 39 British Yearbook of International Law 220; Adrian Taghdiri, ‘Flags of Convenience and the Commercial Spaceflight Industry: The Inadequacy of the Current International Law to Address the Opportune Registration of Space Vehicles in Flag States’ (2013) 19(2) Boston University Journal of Science and Technology Law 405, 419.

145. H Edwin Anderson III, ‘The Nationality of Ships and Flags of Convenience: Economics, Politics, and Alternatives’ (1996) 21(1) Tulane Maritime Law Journal 139, 163; Frans von der Dunk, ‘Towards “Flags of Convenience” in Space’ (2012) 55 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law 811.

146. Convention on the High Seas, opened for signature 29 April 1958, 450 UNTS 82 (entered into force 30 September 1962) art 5(1); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, opened for signature 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 3 (entered into force 16 November 1994).

147. Recommendations on National Legislation Relevant to the Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space, GA Res 68/74, UN Doc A/RES/68/74 (16 December 2013).

148. von der Dunk, ‘Towards “Flags of Convenience”’, above n 145, 822.

149. SAA, above n 2, ss 18(e), 26(3)(e), 35(2)(b), 43(3)(c); OSHAA, above n 57, ss 9(1)(d), 17(1)(c), 25(1)(d), 33(1)(c), 40(1)(d), 9(2), 17(2), 25(2), 33(2), 40(2).

150. SAA, above n 2, ss 18(b), 18(c), 26(3)(e), 35(2)(b), 43(3)(c).

151. OSHAA, above n 57, ss 9(1)(c), 17(1)(b), 25(1)(c), 33(2)(b); Space Activities Amendment (Launches and Returns) Act 2018 (Cth) sch 1, item 63, s 34(2).

152. Outer Space and High-attitude Activities (Licences and Permits) Regulations 2017 (NZ) reg 13.

153. Analysis Report, above n 101, 49–50.

154. Ibid 49.

155. Ibid; application forms for New Zealand are available publicly on the New Zealand Space Agency’s website: <https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/permits-and-licences-for-space-activities/>.

156. Outer Space and High-attitude Activities (Licences and Permits) Regulations 2017 (NZ).

157. Regulatory Impact Statement: Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill, above n 58, 14 [63].

158. Ibid 10 [38]–[40].

159. See, eg, OSHAA, above n 57, s 18(1).

160. SAA, above n 2, s 27.

161. Ibid s 29; OSHAA, above n 57, s 10(1).

162. Space Activities Regulation 2001 (Cth).

163. OSHAA, above n 57, ss 10(1)(i), 18(1)(f), 26(1)(f), 34(1)(e).

164. Warwick Holmes, Submission No 39161057 to the Australian Government Department of Industry, Innovation and Science, Review of the Space Activities Act 1998 (2016) Terms of Reference 1, Question 3 <https://consult.industry.gov.au/space-activities/review-of-the-space-activities-act-1998/consultation/view_respondent?uuId=39161057>.

165. Analysis Report, above n 101, 48; Explanatory Memorandum, Space Activities Bill 1998 (Cth) [13].

166. Space Activities Regulations 2001 (Cth) regs 9.01–9.05; Analysis Report, above n 101, 76.

167. Analysis Report, above n 101, 78.

168. Commonwealth of Australia, National Innovation and Science Agenda (2015) <https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/g/files/net3906/f/July%202018/document/pdf/national-innovation-and-science-agenda-report.pdf>.

169. New Zealand Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment, The Scope of Space Policy and a Lead Space Agency (2016) [48] <https://www.mbie.govt.nz/assets/3304370fe9/scope-of-space-policy-and-a-lead-space-agency-cabinet-paper.pdf>.

170. Calculated as AUD300 000 for the Space Licence and AUD40 000 for the Launch Licence: Space Activities Regulation 2001 (Cth) reg 9.04.

171. Space Activities Regulation 2001 (Cth) regs 9.04, 9.05.

172. Associated Press, ‘New Zealand Space Launch has Nation Reaching for the Stars’, ABC News (online), 21 May 2017 <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-05-21/new-zealand-space-launch-has-nation-reaching-for-the-stars/8545126>; Swapna Krishna, ‘How a $6 Million Launch Vehicle Could Transform the Satellite Business’, Gizmodo Australia (online), 14 April 2017 <https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2017/04/how-a-6-million-launch-vehicle-could-transform-the-satellite-business/>.

173. ‘Capabilities and Services’, SpaceX (Web Page, 2017) <http://www.spacex.com/about/capabilities>.

174. Outer Space Treaty, above n 5, art VII; Liability Convention, above n 7.

175. Recommendations on National Legislation Relevant to the Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space, GA Res 68/74, UN Doc A/RES/68/74 (16 December 2013) [7].

176. SAA, above n 2, s 48(3).

177. Ibid s 69; Explanatory Memorandum, Space Activities Bill 1998 (Cth) [26].

178. Analysis Report, above n 101, 58.

179. Ibid 67.

180. Space Activities Amendment (Launches and Returns) Act 2018 (Cth) sch 1, cl 71(4).

181. Regulatory Impact Statement: Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill, above n 58, [37].

182. Rocket Lab, Submission to the Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Select Committee, New Zealand Parliament, Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Bill (30 November 2016) 2.

183. Explanatory Memorandum, Space Activities Bill 1998 (Cth) [26].

184. Commercial Space Launch Act, 51 USC ch 509 § 50914(a)(3)(A); Commercial Space Transportation, 14 CFR § 440.9(c).

185. Outer Space Act 1986 (UK); UK Space Agency, ‘Fact Sheet: The UK Space Agency’s New Requirements for In-orbit Third-Party Liability Insurance’, 1 October 2018, 1 <https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/744408/TPL_Insurance_Fact_Sheetsw2.pdf>.

186. Law on the Activities of Launching, Flight Operations or Guidance 2005 (Belgium) art 15; Analysis Report, above n 101, 71–2.

187. Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, ‘About Us’, New Zealand Space Agency, (Web Page, 12 April 2017) <https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/about-us/>.

188. Department of Industry, Innovation and Science, ‘Turnbull Government to Establish National Space Agency’ (Media Release, 25 September 2017).

189. ‘Australian Space Agency’, Department of Industry, Innovation and Science (Web Page, 6 July 2017) <https://www.industry.gov.au/strategies-for-the-future/australian-space-agency>.

190. For example, the United States has the Federal Aviation Administration and the Office of Commercial Space Transport: ‘Office of Commercial Space Transport’, Federal Aviation Administration (Web Page, 5 June 2018) <https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/> and in Europe, States have independent authorities and offices responsible for the administration of national space regimes.