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The persistence of colonial constitutionalism in British Overseas Territories

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 March 2019

HAKEEM O YUSUF Open the ORCID record for HAKEEM O YUSUF [Opens in a new window]  and
TANZIL CHOWDHURY
HAKEEM O YUSUF*
Affiliation:
Birmingham Law School, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT
TANZIL CHOWDHURY*
Affiliation:
School of Law, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS
*
*Email: h.yusuf@bham.ac.uk
†Email: tanzil.chowdhury@qmul.ac.uk
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Abstract:

This article argues that despite the UK Government’s exaltations of self-determination of its Overseas Territories, provisions of colonial governance persist in their constitutions. Further, it posits that such illustrations begin to answer the broader question of whether British Overseas Territories (BOTs) are modern day colonies. Such claims are not without merit given that 10 out of the 14 BOTS are still considered Non-Self-Governing Territories by the United Nations and have remained the target of decolonisation efforts. Drawing insights from post-colonial legal theory, this article develops the idea of the persistence of colonial constitutionalism to interrogate whether structural continuities exist in the governance of the UK’s British Overseas Territories. The analysis begins to unravel the fraught tensions between constitutional provisions that advance greater self-determination and constitutional provisions that maintain the persistence of colonial governance. Ultimately, the post-colonial approach foregrounds a thoroughgoing analysis on whether BOTs are colonies and how such an exegesis would require particular nuance that is largely missing in current institutional and non-institutional articulations of, as well as representations on, the issue.

Keywords

British Overseas Territoriescoloniesconstitutionalismpost-colonial theoryself-determination
Type
Articles
Information
Global Constitutionalism , Volume 8 , Issue 1 , March 2019 , pp. 157 - 190
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

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References

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37 See (n 24) 1.

38 See (n 27) 267.

39 Pitcairn Island has a population of just 50 people. Available at <http://www.visitpitcairn.pn/>.

40 British Antarctic Territory, British Indian Ocean Territory, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

41 <https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/new/key-indicators>.

42 House of Lords EU Committee, Brexit: Gibraltar (2017, HL 116) 7.

43 For example, two British Overseas Territories – the Sovereign Base Areas and the British Indian Ocean Territory – are used exclusively as military bases. Indeed, the former was key to the British invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the recent military strikes in Syria in 2015 and 2018. The Falkland Islands and Gibraltar are examples of territories that have served dual civilian and military functions.

44 These are developed in the section Colonial governance: Provisions illustrating the persistence of colonial constitutionalism in the BOTs.

45 See (n 5) per Lord Hoffman and (n 24) 23.

46 Tito v Waddell (No 2) [1977] Ch 106; This was also reaffirmed in Bancoult (No 2) (n 5).

47 See The role of the Governor below.

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49 The UK retains responsibility under United Nations Charter, art 73.

50 See (n 11) 161–92.

51 Madzimbamuto v Lardner-Burke [1969] AC 645.

52 See (n 24) 22–34.

53 See also section Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 and the Interpretation Act 1978.

54 These are all discussed in detail relation to the BOTs. See also Colonial governance: Provisions illustrating the persistence of colonial constitutionalism in the BOTs below.

55 See (n 3). This was recently reaffirmed in the 2017 meeting of the Joint Ministerial Council for the Overseas Territories. See UK Overseas Territories Joint Ministerial Council, ‘2017 Communiqué’ (Joint Ministerial Council, London, 28–29 November 2017) <https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/663983/Joint_Ministerial_Council_2017_-_Communique.pdf>.

56 Ibid 4.

57 See Clegg, P and Gold, P, ‘The UK Overseas Territories: A Decade of Progress and Prosperity?’ (2011) 49(1) Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 115–35;Google Scholar Davies, EW, The Legal Status of British Dependent Territories: The West Indies and North Atlantic Region (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995).Google Scholar

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59 Ibid.

60 Ibid.

61 House of Commons Library Research Paper, Gibraltar: Diplomatic and Constitutional Developments 06/48 of 11 October 2006, 22.

62 See Communiqué 2017 (n 55).

63 For an introduction to Dependency Theory see (n 15) 49–52.

64 Thürer, D and Burri, T, ‘Self-Determination’ in Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008) <http://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e873>;Google Scholar see also Cassese, A, Self-Determination of Peoples: A Legal Perspective (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995).Google Scholar

65 Both instruments were adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly Res 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976.

66 ICJ Advisory Opinion (1971) ICJ Rep 16.

67 [1975] ICJ Rep 12.

68 Statement by the UK’s representative in the Security Council on 25 May 1982 (1983) 54(1) BYBIL 371–2.

69 See (n 64) 140.

70 UNGA Res 2625 (1970), UN GAOR, 25th Sess, Supp No 28.

71 Jovet, JJ Rua, ‘The Fourth Option: Modern Self-Determination of Peoples and the Possibilities of U.S. Federalism’ (2010) 49 Revista de Derecho Puertoriqueno 218.Google Scholar

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76 See (n 34).

77 Thiong’o, N, Decolonising the Mind (Heinemann Kenya, Nairobi, 1986).Google Scholar

78 See (n 15) 49–56.

79 See also Rodney, W, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Tanzanian Publishing House, Dar-es-Salaam, 1973).Google Scholar

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82 Burra, A, ‘What is “Colonial” about Colonial Laws?’ (2016) 31(2) American University of International Law Review 138.Google Scholar This has also underwritten much TWAIL scholarship. See also Chimni, BS, ‘Third World Approaches to International Law: A Manifesto’ (2006) 8 International Community Law Review 3.Google Scholar

83 See (n 14).

84 See (n 14) 319.

85 See (n 17); also Anghie, A, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007) andGoogle Scholar Anghie, A, ‘Francisco de Vitoria and the Colonial Origins of International Law’ in Darian-Smith, E and Fitzpatrick, P (eds), Laws of the Postcolonial (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1999).Google Scholar

86 See (n 17) 1523.

87 Ibid 1531.

88 Ibid 1542.

89 Trusteeships or the mandate system has ceased to exist.

90 See (n 17) 1541.

91 Anghie in Darian-Smith and Fitzpatrick (n 85) 103.

92 Chatterjee, P, ‘Postcolonial Legalism’ (2014) 34(2) Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 225.Google Scholar

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94 See (n 81).

95 See (n 14) 342.

96 The reasons for the focus upon Gibraltar are explained elsewhere. See later Colonial Governance: Provisions illustrating the persistence of colonial constitutionalism in the BOTs.

97 See (n 5).

98 See (n 4).

99 See (n 11) 162–91.

100 Ibid 171. It is relevant to note for completeness that Mauritius has continued to challenge the UK government’s position on sovereignty over the BIOT. In July 2017, the United Nations General Assembly referred the matter to the International Court of Justice for an Advisory Opinion. At the time of writing, the matter is still under consideration.

101 Bancoult (No 2) (n 5) paras 64–65.

102 Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

103 Bashir and Others v Administration of the SBAs and the Secretary of State for Defence (2010) Judicial Review No 1.

104 This treaty formally granted Cyprus its independence from the UK.

105 On the legal effect of International Treaties in the UK Legal System and its dualist nature – see Maclaine Watson v DT [1989] 3 All ER 523 and R v Lyon [2002] UKHL 44. This particular Act of Parliament enacted the above international treaty.

106 See ibid para 60.

107 Ibid para 16.

108 Ibid para 17.

109 See Eldin (CA) (n 4) paras 47–48.

110 Ibid 51.

111 International Law does not take cognisance of domestic constitutional arrangements. See also Treatment of Polish Nationals in Danzig (1932) PCIJ, Ser A/B No 44, 4 February 1932.

112 See Eldin (CA) (n 4) paras 54–55.

113 Ibid 57.

114 Ibid 62.

115 R (on application of Tag Eldin Ramadan Bashir & Other) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2018] UKSC 45 paras 69–71.

116 See UN Charter (n 49).

117 See Eldin (CA) (n 4) para 53.

118 For example, there is no extensive discussion of the role of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, whether the UK courts have jurisdiction to review laws of local BOT legislatures, or the Governor’s emergency powers to name but a few. For further discussion see also (n 24) 98–124, 175–96.

119 See (n 71).

120 Garcia, J, Gibraltar: The Making of People (MedSun, Gibraltar, 1994) 133.Google Scholar

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123 See (n 11) 6–36.

124 See (n 53) section 3.

125 Sammut (n 28); see also (n 24) 19.

126 St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Constitution Order sections 151 and 216; Pitcairn Constitution Order 36(1); South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Order 1985 section 9(1); British Antarctic Territory Order 1989 section 13(1); British Indian Ocean Territory (Constitution) Order 2004 section 10(1); Sovereign Base Areas Order in Council 1960 section 4(1).

127 Gibraltar Constitution Order 1969, section 19.

128 Gibraltar Constitution Order 2006, section 27(3).

129 Bermuda Constitution Order 1968, section 17(2).

130 Pitcairn Constitution Order 2010, sections 37–40.

131 See (n 11); See also R (Jackson) v Attorney General [2005] EWCA Civ 126 para 52; and Walters, MD ‘The Common Law Constitution in Canada: Return of lex non scripta as Fundamental Law’ (2001) 51(2) University of Toronto Law Journal 91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

132 See, for instance, Riel v The Queen (1885) 10 App Cas 675; Union Steamship Co. of Australia Pty. Ltd. v King (Union Steamship) (1988) 166 CLR 1.

133 R (on the application of Bancoult) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs) [2009] 1 AC 453.

134 Ibid 109.

135 Restano, J, Justice So Requiring: The Emergence and Development of a Legal System in Gibraltar (Calpe Press, Gibraltar, 2012) 353.Google Scholar

136 This would be constitutionally necessary given the common law rule of prerogative powers in territories. See also Campbell (n 28) and Sammut (n 28).

137 Letters Patent 1910, on file with author.

138 Royal Instructions 1910, on file with author.

139 Gibraltar (Legislative Council) Order in Council 1950, section 21(1).

140 It was this power that caused the 1955 tax crisis. This prompted protest and provoked subsequent reform. See (n 120) 86.

141 See (n 27) 269.

142 See (n 127) section 24.

143 See (n 128) section 24.

144 Ibid section 33(2)(b); This is analogous to the 1950 POGG-related contingency power of the Governor under section 21(1), although this is a power of disallowance rather than enactment.

145 See (n 11) 19.

146 Constantine, S, Community and Identity: The Making of Modern Gibraltar since 1704 (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2009) 4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

147 See (n 129) section 34.

148 Turks and Caicos Island Constitution Order 2006, section 10.

149 Auld (n 12).

150 [2009] EWHC 1039.

151 <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2009/701/contents/made>.

152 British Indian Ocean Territory (Constitution) Order 2004, sections 11 and 19.

153 See (n 24) 76.

154 Gibraltar House of Assembly, Select Committee on Constitutional Reform (2003) 2–5.

155 See (n 129) section 47.

156 See (n 152) section 11.

157 St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Constitution Order 2009, sections 152 and 217.

158 See (n 128) section 33(2)(a).

159 Ibid section 33(2)(b).

160 See (n 11) 9.

161 Virgin Islands Constitution 2007, section 79(2).

162 Or other named executive official such as Commissioner or Administrator.

163 As opposed to the elected head of government in BOTs with a representative legislature from which ministers are selected.

164 These typically include responsibility for external affairs, defence, internal security (often considered ‘Special Responsibilities’), responsibility for public service, assignment of responsibilities of local Ministers, proroguing powers, powers of appointment, powers to constitute offices, powers of pardon, powers to dispose of Crown Land and emergency powers.

165 These powers may be subject to Royal Instructions issued by the Crown and/or run parallel to a reserve plenary law-making power that the Crown has. See Powers of the Monarch below.

166 See (n 152) section 7(1); In reality, they are assisted by an Administrator working in London and the Commissioner’s representative who is an officer in charge of the Royal Navy contingent in Diego Garcia. See also (n 24) 303.

167 The British Antarctic Territory Order 1989, section 10.

168 See (n 130) section 7.

169 Ibid section 33.

170 Eldin (n 4).

171 See (n 127) section 45(1).

172 Ibid section 46.

173 Ibid section 49.

174 Ibid section47.

175 Ibid section 55.

176 Ibid section 50.

177 See (n 128) section 47.

178 Bermuda has had certain matters relating to external affairs delegated to it by the UK Government through letters of entrustment. For more on entrustments generally, see (n 24) 237–9.

179 See (n 129) section 21(2)(a) and section 62(1)(a).

180 Ibid section 62(2).

181 See (n 24) 229–30.

182 See (n 161) section 60(2)–(4).

183 Cayman Islands Constitution Order 2009, section 55(2) and (4).

184 Montserrat Constitution Order 2010, section 39(2)–(4).

185 See (n 183) section 32.

186 Ibid section 55(3).

187 It is important to remember that overall responsibility for external affairs, regardless of the nature of the hybrid power, ultimately remains vested with the UK Government under international law.

188 St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Constitution Order sections 151 and 216; Pitcairn Constitution Order section 36(1); South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Order 1985 section 9(1); British Antarctic Territory Order 1989 section 13(1); British Indian Ocean Territory (Constitution) Order 2004 section 10(1); Sovereign Base Areas Order in Council 1960 section 4(1).

189 Referred to as the Commissioner in SGSSI, BAT and BIOT and the Administrator in the SBAs.

190 See (n 130) section 36(1) and (3).

191 1910 letters patent, on file with author.

192 Gibraltar (Legislative Council) (n 141) section 21(1).

193 This was formed of the democratically-elected local Assembly and the Governor.

194 Gibraltar 1969 (n 127) section 37.

195 Ibid section 33(2).

196 These were areas of exclusive competence for the Gibraltar council. See also Gibraltar 1969 (n 127) section 55(1).

197 See (n 139) section 34; these were areas of exclusive competence for the Council of Ministers. See also (n 127) section 55(1).

198 Not to be confused with the Legislative council. The Gibraltar Council was a body selected from officers from the UK with some domestically elected ministers. See (n 127) section 46.

199 The Despatch, attached to the end of the 1969 Constitution, justified the provision on the basis that Gibraltar was facing ‘economic problems at this time’ and that such laws needed to be ‘fully co-ordinated’.

200 See (n 127) section 55(2).

201 See (n 128) section 33(2)(b).

202 Anguilla Constitution 1982, section 56; Cayman Islands Constitution 2009, section 81; Falkland Islands Constitution 2008, section 55. Virgin Islands Constitution 2007, section 81.

203 [2009] EWHC 1039 (Admin).

204 <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1978/30/schedule/1>.

205 British Overseas Territories Act 2002, section 1.

206 Effectively any law-making body other than the Imperial Westminster Parliament.

207 See (n 53) section 1. A statutory Order in Council must of course conform to the enabling Act of Parliament and to apply the repugnancy doctrine would undermine the discretion of the Westminster Parliament to legislate for the BOTs. Prerogative Orders in Council have the substance of primary law (as they are not derived from statute) but the effect of the repugnancy doctrine is that it must conform with any Westminster Act of Parliament extended to it and is void if repugnant. See also (n 5) paras 97 and 126.

208 See (n 53) section 2; This does not apply to Westminster Acts of Parliament which extend to BOTs voluntarily by virtue of a local law.

209 See (n 51).

210 See (n 27) 16.

211 Fuller, B, ‘Convicted Killer Osbourne Douglas Sent to United Kingdom’ (Cayman Compass, 25 June 2017) <https://www.caymancompass.com/2017/06/25/convicted-killer-osbourne-douglas-sent-to-united-kingdom/> .+.>Google Scholar

212 See (n 24) 56–7.

213 <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2017/181/made>.

214 Saint Helena Act 1833, section 112; the British Settlements Acts 1887 and 1945; Cyprus Act 1960, section 2(1)(b); West Indies Act 1962, section 5; and Anguilla Act 1980, section 1(2).

215 Section 6(3)(b).

216 Ibid (c).

217 Ibid (e) and (f).

218 This was the case in 1999 with the continuing existence of capital punishment in Bermuda where the UK Government pressed the local government to change the laws or would otherwise intervene to do so. See also FCO, Partnership for Progress and Prosperity (n 3) 21.

219 See the quote at the top of this article.