Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T13:03:46.895Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Trading Liberty: Assisted Repatriation in Liberal Democracies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 July 2020

Konrad Kalicki Open the ORCID record for Konrad Kalicki [Opens in a new window]
Konrad Kalicki*
Affiliation:
Department of Japanese Studies and Department of Political Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
*
*Corresponding author. Email: kkalicki@nus.edu.sg
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Surging flows of international migrants challenge the state's capacity to control borders. This problem is especially acute when it involves unwanted, yet often the most vulnerable, incomers. In liberal democracies, policymakers are caught in the dilemma of how to block their presence without contravening the state's fundamental liberal principles. Against the backdrop of these realities, this article traces the development of monetized means of inducing the voluntary repatriation of such migrants. In contrast to the conventional view that associates this political phenomenon with the neoliberal marketization of belonging, I contend that the growing practice of incentivizing migrants to leave is better conceptualized as a subset of immigration control policies rooted in the liberal ideals that imbue the institutional orders of liberal democracies. From the state's perspective, such post-arrival measures pay greater attention to the individual rights of migrants. This argument is advanced with special reference to the underexplored case of Japan.

Keywords

immigration controlliberal democracyassisted repatriationdeportationEuropeJapan
Type
Articles
Information
Government and Opposition , Volume 55 , Issue 4 , October 2020 , pp. 711 - 731
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2020. Published by Government and Opposition Limited and Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adamson, FB, Triadafilopoulos, T and Zolberg, AR (2011) The Limits of the Liberal State: Migration, Identity and Belonging in Europe. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 37(6), 843–859.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ambrosini, M and van der Leun, J (2015) Implementing Human Rights: Civil Society and Migration Policies. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 13, 103–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amnesty International (2009) Deportation of Filipino Couple from Japan is a Violation of Human Rights. 5 March. www.amnesty.or.jp/en/news/2009/0305_989.html.Google Scholar
Aoki, M (2018) Preferential Visa System to be Extended to Foreign Fourth-Generation Japanese. Japan Times, 30 March.Google Scholar
Arudou, D (2009) ‘Golden Parachutes’ Mark Failure of Race-Based Policy. Japan Times, 7 April.Google Scholar
Arudou, D (2015) Embedded Racism: Japan's Visible Minorities and Racial Discrimination. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Asahi Shimbun (2018) Growing Number of Foreigners Being Detained for Longer Terms, 23 September.Google Scholar
Asahi Shimbun (2019) Bar Association Wants End to Long Detentions of Foreigners. 28 November.Google Scholar
Ashutosh, I and Mountz, A (2011) Migration Management for the Benefit of Whom? Interrogating the Work of the International Organization for Migration. Citizenship Studies 15(1), 21–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beltman, D (2012) Voluntary Return Facilities for Foreign Nationals without Residence Permits in Comparative Perspective. In Vonk, G (ed.), Cross-Border Welfare State: Immigration, Social Security and Integration. Cambridge: Intersentia Publishing, pp. 219–238.Google Scholar
Bengtsson, N (2016) Nu Införs Nya Asylregler – Tusentals Förlorar Bidrag [New Rules on Asylum Are Now Being Introduced – Thousands Are Losing Grants]. Svenska Dagbladet, 1 June.Google Scholar
Black, R, Koser, K and Munk, K (2004) Understanding Voluntary Return. UK Home Office Online Report 50/04.Google Scholar
Black, R, Collyer, M and Somerville, W (2011) Pay-to-Go Schemes and Other Noncoercive Return Programs: Is Scale Possible? Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Blitz, BK, Sales, R and Marzano, L (2005) Non-Voluntary Return? The Politics of Return to Afghanistan. Political Studies 53(1), 182–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloch, A and Schuster, L (2005) At the Extremes of Exclusion: Deportation, Detention and Dispersal. Ethnic and Racial Studies 28(3), 491–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BMI (German Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building and Community) (2017) Stärkere Unterstützung für freiwillige Rückkehrer [Greater Support for Voluntary Returnees]. www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/pressemitteilungen/DE/2017/01/starthilfe-plus.html.Google Scholar
Boswell, C (2007) Theorizing Migration Policy: Is There a Third Way? International Migration Review 41(1), 75–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boswell, C and Geddes, A (2010) Migration and Mobility in the European Union. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Brekke, J-P (2015) Why Go Back? Assisted Return from Norway. Institute for Social Research Report 2015:08.Google Scholar
Brücker, H et al. (2002) Managing Migration in the European Welfare State. In Boeri, T, Hanson, GH and McCormick, B (eds), Immigration Policy and the Welfare System. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1–168.Google Scholar
Bulman, M (2016) French Government Offers Refugees and Migrants €2,500 to ‘Voluntarily’ Deport Themselves. Independent, 25 November.Google Scholar
Carens, J (1987) Aliens and Citizens: The Case for Open Borders. Review of Politics 49(2), 251–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chauvin, S and Garcés-Mascareñas, B (2014) Becoming Less Illegal: Deservingness Frames and Undocumented Migrant Incorporation. Sociology Compass 8(4), 422–432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, P (2000) Philosophies of Exclusion: Liberal Political Theory and Immigration. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Cornelius, WA et al. (2004) (eds) Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Cortazzi, H (2015) Japan's Population Problem. Japan Times, 19 November.Google Scholar
DeBono, D (2016) Returning and Deporting Irregular Migrants: Not a Solution to the ‘Refugee Crisis’. Human Geography 9(2), 101–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Haas, H, Natter, K and Vezzoli, S (2018) Growing Restrictiveness of Changing Selection? The Nature and Evolution of Migration Policies. International Migration Review 52(2), 324–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doty, RL (1998) Immigration and the Politics of Security. Security Studies 8(2/3), 71–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dünnwald, S (2013) Voluntary Return: The Practical Failure of a Benevolent Concept. In Geiger, M and Pécoud, A (eds), Disciplining the Transnational Mobility of People. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 228–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellermann, A (2006) Street-Level Democracy: How Immigration Bureaucrats Manage Public Opposition. West European Politics 29(2), 293–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellermann, A (2008) The Limits of Unilateral Migration Control: Deportation and Inter-State Cooperation. Government and Opposition: An International Journal of Comparative Politics 43(2), 168–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellermann, A (2009) States Against Migrants: Deportation in Germany and the United States. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellermann, A (2010) Undocumented Migrants and Resistance in the Liberal State. Politics & Society 38(3), 408–429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellermann, A and Goenaga, A (2019) Discrimination and Policies of Immigrant Selection in Liberal States. Politics & Society 47(1), 87–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
EMN (European Migration Network) (2015) Overview: Incentives to Return to a Third Country and Support Provided to Migrants for Their Reintegration. Brussels: European Commission.Google Scholar
EMN (European Migration Network) (2016) Non-Binding Common Standards for Assisted Voluntary Return (and Reintegration) Programmes Implemented by Member States. Brussels: European Commission.Google Scholar
European Commission (2017) On a More Effective Return Policy in the European Union – A Renewed Action Plan. Brussels: European Commission.Google Scholar
European Parliament and the Council (2008) Directive 2008/115/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on Common Standards and Procedures in Member States for Returning Illegally Staying Third-Country Nationals. Official Journal of the European Union L348, 98–107.Google Scholar
Fackler, M (2014) Relatives of Ghanaian who Died during Deportation Win Ruling in Japan. New York Times, 19 March.Google Scholar
Farand, C (2017) Austria Says It Will Double Money Offer to Refugees who Volunteer to Leave the Country. Independent, 24 March.Google Scholar
Fedasil (Federal Agency for the Reception of Asylum Seekers) (2009) Programmes and Strategies in Belgium Fostering Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration in Third Countries. Belgium EMN Report, October.Google Scholar
Finnemore, M and Sikkink, K (1998) International Norm Dynamics and Political Change. International Organization 52(4), 887–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flahaux, M-L (2017) The Role of Migration Policy Changes in Europe for Return Migration to Senegal. International Migration Review 51(4), 868–892.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedom House (2000–18) ‘Freedom in the World’ Annual Reports. https://freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world.Google Scholar
Freedom House (2019) Freedom in the World 2019: Democracy in Retreat. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/democracy-retreat.Google Scholar
Freeman, GP (1995) Modes of Immigration Politics in Liberal Democratic States. International Migration Review 29(4), 881–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fritz, M (2019) Japan's ‘Hidden Darkness’: The Detention of Unwanted Immigrants. Deutsche Welle, 25 November.Google Scholar
Gammeltoft-Hansen, T and Tan, NF (2017) The End of the Deterrence Paradigm? Future Directions for Global Refugee Policy. Journal on Migration and Human Security 5(1), 28–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Georgi, F (2010) For the Benefit of Some: The International Organization for Migration and Its Global Migration Management. In Geiger, M and Pécoud, A (eds), The Politics of International Migration Management. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 45–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerver, M (2017) Paying Refugees to Leave. Political Studies 65(3), 631–645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibney, MJ (2008) Asylum and the Expansion of Deportation in the United Kingdom. Government and Opposition: An International Journal of Comparative Politics 43(2), 146–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibney, MJ (2013) Is Deportation a Form of Forced Migration? Refugee Survey Quarterly 32(2), 116–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibney, MJ and Hansen, R (2003) Deportation and the Liberal State: The Forcible Return of Asylum Seekers and Unlawful Migrants in Canada, Germany and the United Kingdom. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Working Paper 77.Google Scholar
Gubert, F (2014) The Discourse and Practice of Co-Development in Europe. In Lucas, REB (ed.), International Handbook on Migration and Economic Development. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 113–151.Google Scholar
Abdou L, Hadj and Rosenberger, S (2019) Contesting the Deportation State? Political Change Aspirations in Protests against Forced Returns. Ethnic and Racial Studies 42(16), 102–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, L (2014) ‘Voluntary’ Repatriation and Reintegration. In Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, E et al. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 499–511.Google Scholar
Hampshire, J (2013) The Politics of Immigration: Contradictions of the Liberal State. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Helbling, M and Kalkum, D (2018) Migration Policy Trends in OECD Countries. Journal of European Public Policy 25(12), 1779–1797.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HLN (Het Laatste Nieuws) (2016) Dreigend of Niet? De Brieven van Theo Francken aan Asielzoekers in België [Threatening or Not? Theo Francken's Letters to Asylum Seekers in Belgium]. 9 March.Google Scholar
Hollifield, JF (1992) Immigrants, Markets, and States: The Political Economy of Postwar Europe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hollifield, JF (2004) The Emerging Migration State. International Migration Review 38(3), 885–912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hussein, M (2017) Germany: Do Financial Incentives Prompt Asylum Seekers to Return to Their Home Countries? InfoMigrants, 11 December.Google Scholar
InfoMigrants (2018) 500 Million for Voluntary Return Program in Germany. 29 March.Google Scholar
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (2004) Return Migration: Policies and Practices in Europe. Geneva: IOM.Google Scholar
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (2011) Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration: Annual Report of Activities 2010. Geneva: IOM.Google Scholar
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (2016) Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration: At a Glance 2015. Geneva: IOM.Google Scholar
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (2017) Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration: 2016 Key Highlights. Geneva: IOM.Google Scholar
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (2018) Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration: 2017 Key Highlights. Geneva: IOM.Google Scholar
ISA (Immigration Services Agency of Japan) (n.d.) Departure Orders. www.immi-moj.go.jp/english/tetuduki/taikyo/syutukoku.html.Google Scholar
Jacobson, D (1996) Rights across Borders: Immigration and the Decline of Citizenship. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Japan Times (2009) Calderon Couple Exit Japan. 14 April.Google Scholar
Japan Times (2013) Japanese-Brazilian Woman Sues over Denial of Re-Entry. 9 May.Google Scholar
Japan Times (2016) Japan Asks Five Embassies to Urge Voluntary Return of Illegal Residents. 29 June.Google Scholar
JFBA (Japan Federation of Bar Associations) (2014) Opinion Calling for Improvement of the Detention System at Immigration Control. 18 September, www.nichibenren.or.jp/en/document/opinionpapers/20140918_2.html.Google Scholar
Johnson, C (2014) Court Rules Japan Officials Killed Deportee at Narita. Deutsche Welle, 28 March.Google Scholar
Joppke, C (1998) Why Liberal States Accept Unwanted Immigration. World Politics 50(2), 266–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joppke, C (2001) The Legal-Domestic Sources of Immigrant Rights: The United States, Germany, and the European Union. Comparative Political Studies 34(4), 339–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalicki, K (2014) Ius Pecuniae: Wealth-Based Citizenship Policies in Europe. APSA Migration and Citizenship Newsletter 2(2), 56–58.Google Scholar
Kalicki, K (2019a) Japan's Liberal-Democratic Paradox of Refugee Admission. Journal of Asian Studies 78(2), 355–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalicki, K (2019b) Security Fears and Bureaucratic Rivalry: Admitting Foreign Labor in Japan and Taiwan. Comparative Politics 51(4), 603–624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalir, B (2017) Between ‘Voluntary’ Return Programs and Soft Deportation: Sending Vulnerable Migrants in Spain back ‘Home’. In Vathi, Z and King, R (eds), Return Migration and Psychosocial Wellbeing: Discourses, Policy-Making and Outcomes for Migrants and Their Families. New York: Routledge, pp. 56–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kawakami, S and McNeill, D (2011) Justice Stalled in Brutal Death of Deportee. Japan Times, 1 November.Google Scholar
Kishitsu, R (2018) Directive Allows Long Detentions of Overstaying Foreigners. Asahi Shimbun, 31 December.Google Scholar
Kiwan, D (2005) Human Rights and Citizenship: An Unjustifiable Conflation? Journal of Philosophy of Education 39(1), 37–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, A (2014) The Politics and Discourse of Migrant Return: The Role of UNHCR and IOM in the Governance of Return. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40(6), 905–923.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koser, K and Kuschminder, K (2015) Comparative Research on the Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration of Migrants. Geneva: International Organization for Migration.Google Scholar
Kuschminder, K (2017) Taking Stock of Assisted Voluntary Return from Europe: Decision Making, Reintegration and Sustainable Return – Time for a Paradigm Shift. Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, Research Paper RSCAS 2017/31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leerkes, A, van Os, R, and Boersema, E (2017) What Drives ‘Soft Deportation’? Understanding the Rise in Assisted Voluntary Return among Rejected Asylum Seekers in the Netherlands. Population, Space and Place 23(8). https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2059.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenard, PT (2015) The Ethics of Deportation in Liberal Democratic States. European Journal of Political Theory 14(4), 464–480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lietaert, I (2017) Transnational Knowledge in Social Work Programs: Challenges and Strategies Within Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration Support. Transnational Social Review 7(2), 158–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lietaert, I, Broekaert, E, and Derluyn, I (2017) From Social Instrument to Migration Management Tool: Assisted Voluntary Return Programmes – The Case of Belgium. Social Policy & Administration 51(7), 961–980.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindstrøm, C (2005) European Union Policy on Asylum and Immigration. Addressing the Root Causes of Forced Migration: A Justice and Home Affairs Policy of Freedom, Security and Justice? Social Policy & Administration 39(6), 587–605.Google Scholar
Mainichi Shimbun (2019) Japan's Hidden Darkness: Deaths, Inhumane Treatment Rife at Immigration Centers. 9 July.
Masters, C (2009) Japan to Immigrants: Thanks, but You Can Go Home Now. Time, 20 April.Google Scholar
Mavelli, L (2018) Citizenship for Sale and the Neoliberal Political Economy of Belonging. International Studies Quarterly 62(3), 482–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCabe, K et al. (2009) Pay to Go: Countries Offer Cash to Immigrants Willing to Pack Their Bags. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Menz, G (2009) The Political Economy of Managed Migration: Nonstate Actors, Europeanization, and the Politics of Designing Migration Policies. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
MHLW (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare) (2010) Nikkeijin Kikoku Shien Jigyō no Jisshi Kekka [Results of Implementation of the Nikkeijin Repatriation Support Project]. www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/koyou/gaikokujin15/kikoku_shien.html.Google Scholar
Migrationsverket (Swedish Migration Agency) (2018) The Changing Influx of Asylum Seekers in 2014–2016: Member States’ Responses – Country Report Sweden. Report from EMN Sweden 2017:3.Google Scholar
MOJ (Ministry of Justice) (2013) Fuhō Taizai Gaikokujin Shukugen no Tame no Torikumi ni Tsuite [An Approach to Reducing Illegal Foreign Residents]. December, www.moj.go.jp/content/000118287.pdf.Google Scholar
MOJ (Ministry of Justice) (2018a) Daijūsankai Dainanaji Shutsunyūkoku Kanri Seisaku Kondankai Gijiroku [Minutes from the Thirteenth Panel Discussion on the Seventh Immigration Control Policy]. 26 December, www.moj.go.jp/content/001296326.pdf.Google Scholar
MOJ (Ministry of Justice) (2018b) Heisei 29-nen ni Okeru Nyūkanhō Ihan Jiken ni Tsuite [Violation Cases of Immigration Law in 2017]. 27 March, www.moj.go.jp/nyuukokukanri/kouhou/nyuukokukanri09_00041.html.Google Scholar
MOJ (Ministry of Justice) (2018c) Taikyo Kyōsei Gyōmu ni Tsuite [About Deportation Procedures]. December, www.moj.go.jp/content/001279678.pdf.Google Scholar
MOJ (Ministry of Justice) (2019) Shutsunyūkoku Zairyū Kanri Kihon Keikaku [Basic Plan for Immigration and Residence Management]. April, www.immi-moj.go.jp/seisaku/pdf/2019_kihonkeikaku_honbun.pdf.Google Scholar
Munck, R (2008) Globalisation, Governance and Migration: An Introduction. Third World Quarterly 29(7), 1227–1246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noll, G (1999) Rejected Asylum Seekers: The Problem of Return. International Migration 37(1), 267–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oeppen, C and Majidi, N (2015) Can Afghans Reintegrate after Assisted Return from Europe? Insights from the Project ‘Possibilities and Realities of Return Migration’. Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) Policy Brief 07/2015.Google Scholar
Osaki, T (2013) Ban Lifted on ‘Nikkei’ Who Got Axed, Airfare. Japan Times, 15 October.Google Scholar
Osaki, T (2016) In Reversal, Tokyo High Court Rules Government not Responsible for Ghanaian Deportee's Death. Japan Times, 18 January.Google Scholar
Papademetriou, DG et al. (2010) Migration and Immigrants Two Years after the Financial Collapse: Where Do We Stand? Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Paul, R (2015) The Political Economy of Border Drawing: Arranging Legality in European Labor Migration Policies. New York: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Perlmutter, T (1996) Bringing Parties Back In: Comments on ‘Modes of Immigration Politics in Liberal Democratic Societies’. International Migration Review 30(1), 375–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plewa, P (2009) Voluntary Return Programmes: Could They Assuage the Effects of the Economic Crisis? Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, University of Oxford, Working Paper 75.Google Scholar
Plewa, P (2012) The Effects of Voluntary Return Programmes on Migration Flows in the Context of the 1973/74 and 2008/09 Economic Crises. Comparative Population Studies 37(1–2), 147–176.Google Scholar
Risse, T and Sikkink, K (1999) The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction. In Risse, T et al. (eds), The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogberg, S (2017) Rekordmånga får Bidrag för att Återvända till Hemlandet [Record Numbers Receive Grants to Return to Their Home Country]. Svenska Dagbladet, 31 October.Google Scholar
Scalettaris, G and Gubert, F (2019) Return Schemes from European Countries: Assessing the Challenges. International Migration 57(4), 91–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, J and Kreienbrink, A (2010) Return Assistance in Germany: Programmes and Strategies Fostering Assisted Return to and Reintegration in Third Countries. EMN Working Paper 31.Google Scholar
SMJ (Solidarity Network with Migrants Japan) (2019) Press conference. ‘Appeal for Amnesty for Visa Overstayers and Report on Human Rights Violations of Those in Detention Centers – ahead of 2020 Tokyo Olympics. Foreign Correspondents’ Club of Japan, 26 July. https://migrants.jp/news/voice/20190726_1.html.Google Scholar
Soysal, YN (1994) Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe. Chicago: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Stalker, P (2002) Migration Trends and Migration Policy in Europe. International Migration 40(5), 151–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strand, A et al. (2008) Return with Dignity, Return to What? Review of the Voluntary Return Programme to Afghanistan. Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute.Google Scholar
Strand, A et al. (2016) Programmes for Assisted Return to Afghanistan, Iraqi Kurdistan, Ethiopia and Kosovo: A Comparative Evaluation of Effectiveness and Outcomes. Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute.Google Scholar
Tabuchi, H (2009) Japan Pays Foreign Workers to Go Home. New York Times, 22 April.Google Scholar
Thomas, ER (2002) Who Belongs? Competing Conceptions of Political Membership. European Journal of Social Theory 5(3), 323–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandevoordt, R (2017) Between Humanitarian Assistance and Migration Management: On Civil Actors’ Role in Voluntary Return from Belgium. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 43(11), 1907–1922.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
V-Dem (2018) Democracy for All? V-Dem Annual Democracy Report 2018.Google Scholar
Webber, F (2011) How Voluntary are Voluntary Returns? Race & Class 52(4), 98–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiner, M (1996) A Security Perspective on International Migration. Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 20(2), 17–34.Google Scholar
Widner, J (1980) Men Without a Country: Expatriate Workers and What Europe Is Doing to Help Them. Harvard International Review, February. Posted online 23 May 2019, http://hir.harvard.edu/men-without-a-country/.Google Scholar
Zandstra, P (2015) Dijkhoff Stuurt Open Brief aan Asielzoekers [Dijkhoff Sends an Open Letter to Asylum Seekers]. NRC Handelsblad, 20 October.Google Scholar