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HANNAH LAWRANCE AND THE CLAIMS OF WOMEN'S HISTORY IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY ENGLAND*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 August 2010

BENJAMIN DABBY
BENJAMIN DABBY*
Affiliation:
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
*
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge CB2 1TAbjd26@cam.ac.uk
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Abstract

The historian, Hannah Lawrance (1795–1875), played an important role in nineteenth-century public debate about women's education. Like Catharine Macaulay and Mary Wollstonecraft, she argued that virtue had no sex and she promoted the broad education of women in order to increase their opportunities for employment. But unlike her bluestocking predecessors, she derived her argument from a scholarly reappraisal of women's history. Whereas the Strickland sisters' Tory Romantic histories celebrated the Tudor and Stuart eras in particular, Lawrance's ‘olden time’ celebrated the medieval period. This is when she located England's civilizational progress, driven by the education of queens and the wider state of women's education, allowing her to evade the potential conflict of a feminine creature in a manly role. Using the condition of women to measure the peaks and troughs of civilization was a familiar approach to historical writing, but Lawrance's radical argument was that women were often responsible for England's progress, rather than passive bystanders. Her emphasis on women's contribution to public life complemented the Whig-nationalist narrative and secured her a high reputation across a range of political periodicals. Above all, it appealed to other liberal reformers such as Thomas Hood, Charles Wentworth Dilke, and Robert Vaughan, who shared Lawrance's commitment to social reform and helped to secure a wide audience for her historical perspective.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 53 , Issue 3 , September 2010 , pp. 699 - 722
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

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Footnotes

*

I owe special thanks to my research supervisor, Peter Mandler, for his comments on a draft of this article. An earlier version was delivered to the Gender and History Graduate Workshop, Cambridge University, 3 March 2009. I am grateful to Clare Jackson and the anonymous readers at the Historical Journal for their criticism, and to Anna Clark and the anonymous readers at the Journal of British Studies.

References

1 Hannah Lawrance, Historical memoirs of the queens of England, from the commencement of the twelfth century (2 vols., London, 1838–40); idem, The history of woman in England, and her influence on society and literature, from the earliest period (London, 1843). Susan Jones, ed., The Athenaeum index of reviews and reviewers, 1830–1870, http://athenaeum.soi.city.ac.uk/reviews/home.html (2001); Walter E. Houghton et al., eds., The Wellesley index to Victorian periodicals, 1824–1900 (5 vols., Toronto, 1969–89), v, pp. 452–3.

2 Karen O'Brien, Women and Enlightenment in eighteenth-century Britain (Cambridge, 2009), p. 70. See also Kathryn Gleadle, The early feminists: radical Unitarians and the emergence of the women's rights movement, 1831–1851 (Basingstoke, 1995), pp. 64–8; Jane Rendall, The origins of modern feminism: women in Britain, France, and the United States, 1780–1860 (Basingstoke, 1985), pp. 20–32; Taylor, Barbara, ‘Feminism and the Enlightenment, 1650–1850’, History Workshop Journal, 47, (1999), pp. 261–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at pp. 266–7; idem, Mary Wollstonecraft and the feminist imagination (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 154–75; Tomaselli, Sylvana, ‘The Enlightenment debate on women’, History Workshop, 20, (1985), pp. 101–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Adam Ferguson, An essay on the history of civil society (Edinburgh, 1767); idem, The history of the progress and termination of the Roman republic (3 vols., London, 1783); Henry Home, Lord Kames, Sketches of the history of man (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1774), i, pp. 168–330, passim; John Millar, An historical view of the English government, from the settlement of the Saxons in Britain to the accession of the house of Stuart (London, 1787); idem, Observations concerning the distinction of rank in society (London, 1771); idem, The origin of the distinction of ranks: or, an inquiry into the circumstances which gave rise to influence and authority in the different members of society (London, 1779); William Robertson, The history of America (2 vols., London, 1777); idem, The history of the reign of the Emperor Charles V (3 vols., London, 1769).

4 William Alexander, The history of women, from the earliest antiquity to the present time (2 vols., London, 1779); O'Brien, Women and Enlightenment, p. 70.

5 Clare Broome Saunders, Women writers and nineteenth-century medievalism (New York, NY, 2009), pp. 45–6; O'Brien, Women and Enlightenment, pp. 137–51. See also Veronica Ortenberg, In search of the holy grail: the quest for the middle ages (London, 2006). Ortenberg shows the revival to be part of a pan-European phenomenon.

6 Alexander, History of women, ii, p. 166. See also Robertson, History of the reign of the Emperor Charles V, i, p. 71.

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8 Edmund Burke, Reflections on the revolution in France, and on the proceedings in certain societies in London relative to that event. In a letter intended to have been sent to a gentleman in Paris (London, 1790), pp. 112–13.

9 See Clare Jackson, ‘Progress and optimism’, in Martin Fitzpatrick, Peter Jones, Christa Knellwolf, and Iain McCalman, eds., The Enlightenment world (Abingdon, 2004), pp. 177–93, at p. 187.

10 [Catharine Macaulay], Observations on the reflections of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, on the revolution in France, in a letter to the Right Hon. the earl of Stanhope (London, 1790), p. 54. Qu. in O'Brien, Women and Enlightenment, p. 149.

11 Catharine Macaulay, The history of England from the accession of James I to that of the Brunswick line (8 vols., London, 1763–83); Donna Robson, ‘Romantic women writers’, in Mary Spongberg, Ann Curthoys, and Barbara Caine, eds., Companion to women's historical writing (Basingstoke, 2005), pp. 485–95, at pp. 486–8.

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14 Hicks, Philip, ‘Civil war: gender, history, and republicanism in Georgian Britain’, Journal of British Studies, 41, (2002), pp. 170–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at pp. 182–5.

15 Mary Wollstonecraft, A vindication of the rights of woman, with strictures on political and moral subjects (London, 1792), p. 37, and passim. See also Mary Hilton, Women and the shaping of the nation's young: education and public doctrine in Britain, 1750–1850 (Aldershot, 2007), pp. 78–85.

16 Hicks, Philip, ‘The Roman matron in Britain: female political influence and republican response, ca. 1750–1800’, Journal of Modern History, 77, (2005), pp. 35–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 53, passim; Gunther-Canada, ‘Politics of sense and sensibility’, p. 145.

17 Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the rights of woman, p. 115. Qu. in Mary Spongberg, ‘The ghost of Marie Antoinette: a prehistory of Victorian royal lives’, in Lynette Felber, ed., Clio's daughters: British women making history, 1790–1899 (Newark, NJ, 2007), pp. 71–96, at p. 74.

18 For example Elizabeth Eger, ‘The bluestocking legacy’, in Elizabeth Eger and Lucy Peltz, eds., Brilliant women: eighteenth-century bluestockings (London, 2008), pp. 126–51, at pp. 127–33.

19 Miriam Elizabeth Burstein, Narrating women's history in Britain, 1770–1902 (Aldershot, 2004), pp. 98–126; idem, ‘Royal lives’, in Spongberg, Curthoys, and Caine, eds., Companion to women's historical writing, pp. 495–505; Felber, ed., Clio's daughters; Devoney Looser, British women writers and the writing of history, 1670–1820 (Baltimore, MD, 2000); Rohan Amanda Maitzen, Gender, genre, and Victorian historical writing (New York, NY, 1998); Rosemary Mitchell, Picturing the past: English history in text and image, 1830–1870 (Oxford, 2000), pp. 141–60; Bonnie G. Smith, The gender of history: men, women, and historical practice (Cambridge, MA, 2000), pp. 51–2; Mary Spongberg, ‘Female biography’, in Spongberg, Curthoys, and Caine, eds., Companion to women's historical writing, pp. 172–82; idem, Writing women's history since the Renaissance (Basingstoke, 2002), pp. 124–9.

20 Mitchell, Picturing the past, pp. 145, 142.

21 [Hannah Lawrance], London in the olden time; or, tales intended to illustrate the manners and superstitions of its inhabitants from the twelfth to the sixteenth century (2 vols., London, 1825–7), ii, p. vi.

22 Mitchell, Rosemary, ‘“The busy daughters of Clio”: women writers of history from 1820 to 1880’, Women's History Review, 7, (1998), pp. 107–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 115. More recently, Joanne Wilkes has supplied a brief account of Hannah Lawrance's histories, and her reviews of Charlotte Brontë and Elizabeth Barrett Browning. See Joanne Wilkes, Women reviewing women in nineteenth-century Britain: the critical reception of Jane Austen, Charlotte Brontë and George Eliot (Farnham, 2010), pp. 58–68.

23 Elizabeth Barrett Browning to Richard Hengist Horne (23 Dec. 1843), in S. R. Mayer, ed., Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning addressed to Richard Hengist Horne (2 vols., London, 1877), i, p. 210. Qu. in Rosemary Mitchell, ‘Lawrance, Hannah (1795–1875)’, in H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison, eds., Oxford dictionary of national biography (61 vols., Oxford, 2004), xxxii, pp. 787–8, at p. 788.

24 Peter Mandler, ‘The popular cult of the olden time’, paper presented at ‘Tudorism: historical imagination and the appropriation of the sixteenth century’, Colston Research Society Symposium, University of Bristol, Dec. 2008.

25 Idem, ‘“In the olden time”: Romantic history and English national identity, 1820–1850’, in Laurence Brockliss and Davis Eastwood, eds., A union of multiple identities: the British isles, c. 1750 – c. 1850 (Manchester, 1997), pp. 78–92, at p. 82. See also Peter Mandler, The fall and rise of the stately home (London, 1997), pp. 31–7, 40–5.

26 Peter Mandler, The English national character: the history of an idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair (New Haven, CT, 2006), pp. 86–8.

27 [Lawrance, Hannah], ‘Mrs. Browning's poetry’, British Quarterly Review, 42, (1865), pp. 359–84Google Scholar, at. p. 364.

28 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, i, p. iv.

29 See Wilkes, Women reviewing women, p. 67.

30 Stafford, Pauline, ‘Women and the Norman Conquest’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 4, (1994), pp. 221–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 222. Stafford summarizes a wider historiographical debate. Modern-day proponents of a largely positive view of women's experience in the Anglo-Saxon period include Helen Damico and Alexandra Hennessey Olsen, eds., New readings on women in old English literature (Bloomington, IN, 1990); Christine Fell, Cecily Clark, and Elizabeth Williams, Women in Anglo-Saxon England and the impact of 1066 (London, 1984); Schulenberg, Jean Tibbetts, ‘Women's monastic communities, 500–1100: patterns of expansion and decline’, Signs, 14 (1988–9), pp. 261–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Critics of the golden age theory include Stafford, and Judith M. Bennett, Women in the medieval countryside: gender and household in Brigstock before the plague (Oxford, 1987; Clare A. Lees, Tradition and belief: religious writing in late Anglo-Saxon England (Minneapolis, MN, 1999), pp. 133–4; Clare A. Lees and Gillian R. Overing, Double agents: women and clerical culture in Anglo-Saxon England (Philadelphia, PA, 2001).

31 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, i, p. 183.

32 Sharon Turner, The history of the Anglo-Saxons, from their first appearance above the Elbe, to the Norman Conquest (4 vols., London, 1799–1805), iv, p. 108.

33 John Mitchell Kemble, The Saxons in England: a history of the English commonwealth till the period of the Norman Conquest (2 vols., London, 1849), i, p. 233, passim.

34 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, i, p. 12.

35 Burstein, Miriam Elizabeth, ‘From good looks to good thoughts: popular women's history and the invention of modernity, ca. 1830–1870’, Modern Philology, 97, (1999), pp. 46–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 51; Alison Booth, How to make it as a woman: collective biographical history from Victoria to the present (Chicago, IL, 2004), p. 30.

36 Tricia Lootens, Lost saints: silence, gender, and Victorian literary canonization (Charlottesville, VA, 1996), pp. 59–64.

37 Dorothy Mermin, Godiva's ride: women of letters in England, 1830–1880 (Bloomington, IN, 1993), p. 57.

38 Cf. Rohan Maitzen, ‘Plotting women: Froude and Strickland on Elizabeth I and Mary Queen of Scots’, in Felber, ed., Clio's daughters, pp. 123–50, at p. 124; Wilkes, Women reviewing women, p. 63.

39 See Margaret Wade Labarge, A medieval miscellany (Ottawa, 1997), p. 95.

40 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, i, p. 16. See also Lawrance, History of woman, p. 277.

41 Idem, Historical memoirs, i, p. 16.

42 Ibid., p. 17.

43 Ibid., pp. 25–6.

44 See Labarge, Medieval miscellany, p. 91.

45 [Lawarance, ], ‘The education and employment of women’, British Quarterly Review, 52, (1870), pp. 31–57Google Scholar, at p. 48.

46 Idem, History of woman, p. 72.

47 Ibid., pp. 310–11.

48 Idem, ‘Novelties in female education’, British Quarterly Review, 12, (1850), pp. 193–216, at p. 195.

49 Chitra P. Reddin, Forms of evil in the gothic novel (New York, NY, 1980); Ingram, Philip, ‘Protestant patriarchy and the Catholic priesthood in nineteenth-century England’, Journal of Social History, 24, (1991), pp. 783–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 784, passim; Paz, D. G., ‘Anti-Catholicism, anti-Irish stereotyping, and anti-Celtic racism in mid-Victorian working-class periodicals’, Albion, 18, (1986), pp. 601–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at pp. 605–6, passim.

50 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, ii, p. 26.

51 Agnes Strickland, Lives of the queens of England (12 vols., London, 1840–8), i, pp. 150, 170.

52 Mary Anne Everett Green, Lives of the princesses of England, from the Norman conquest (6 vols., London, 1849–55), i, p. 82.

53 Ibid., pp. 6, 11, 195–7.

54 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, ii, 15.

55 [Johnstone, Christian Isobel], ‘Historical memoirs of the queens of England [Second Notice]’, Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, 7, (1840), pp. 111–14Google Scholar, at p. 114.

56 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, i, p. 20.

57 Mermin, Godiva's ride, p. 58.

58 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, i, p. 60.

59 Ibid., pp. 61–2.

60 Ibid., pp. 129–30. See also Lawrance, History of woman, p. 325.

61 Idem, Historical memoirs, i, pp. 132, 139.

62 Ibid., pp. 144–5.

63 Ibid., pp. 155–56. Cf. Green, Lives of the princesses, i, p. 189.

64 [Lawrance], ‘Rollo and his race’, Athenaeum, 1062, (1848), pp. 237–8, at p. 238.

65 Idem, Historical memoirs, i, pp. 159–60. Lawrance is citing Turner. See also Lawrance, History of woman, p. 330; Sharon Turner, History of England, from the Norman conquest, to the accession of Edward the first (London, 1814), p. 445.

66 [Lawrance], ‘Education’, p. 48.

67 Idem, ‘Society in the age of Elizabeth’, British Quarterly Review, 5, (1847), pp. 412–45, at pp. 413–15; idem, Historical memoirs, ii, p. 13.

68 Idem, ‘Society in the age of Elizabeth’, p. 414.

69 Ibid., p. 443.

70 Ibid., pp. 420, 429. Lawrance is citing Roger Ascham.

71 Idem, ‘Dramatic poetry in the age of Elizabeth’, British Quarterly Review, 14, (1851), pp. 31–67, at pp. 39–40.

72 Idem, ‘Society in the age of Elizabeth’, p. 432.

73 Ibid., p. 430.

74 Ibid., p. 437.

75 Idem, ‘English society under James I’, British Quarterly Review, 7, (1848), pp. 73–104, at p. 103.

76 Broome Saunders, Women writers, pp. 105–10

77 Maitzen, Gender, genre, and Victorian historical writing, p. 164.

78 Mitchell, Picturing the past, p. 154.

79 Maitzen, Gender, genre, and Victorian historical writing, pp. 77–83.

80 Strickland, Lives of the queens, vi, p. 13. Qu. in Maitzen, Gender, genre, and Victorian historical writing, p. 78.

81 Mrs Matthew Hall, The queens before the conquest (2 vols. London, 1854), ii, pp. 5–6, 182–3, 295, 344.

82 Lawrance, Historical memoirs, ii, p. 141; idem, History of woman, p. 284. Lawrance's longest discussion of needlework, in the History of woman, detaches the practice from accusations of feminine vanity and describes it as a means of ‘lucrative subsistence’. See idem, History of woman, pp. 296–306.

83 Idem, ‘Society in the age of Elizabeth’, p. 444.

84 Una Pope-Hennessy, Agnes Strickland: biographer of the queens of England, 1796–1874 (London, 1940), p. 62; Anne Laurence, ‘Women historians and documentary research: Lucy Aikin, Agnes Strickland, Mary Anne Everett Green and Lucy Toulmin Smith’, in Joan Bellamy, Anne Laurence, and Gill Perry, eds., Women, scholarship and criticism: gender and knowledge, c. 1790–1900 (Manchester, 2000), pp. 136–7, at p. 132.

85 [Lawrance, Hannah], ‘Chronicle of Queen Jane, and of two years of Queen Mary, &c.’, Athenaeum, 1179, (1850), pp. 578–80Google Scholar, at p. 579.

86 Idem, ‘De antiquis legibus liber [second notice]’, Athenaeum, 979, (1846), pp. 547–9; idem, ‘Giustinian's court of Henry VIII’, British Quarterly Review, 21, (1855), pp. 442–67.

87 Idem, ‘The historical element in ballads’, British Quarterly Review, 33, (1861), pp. 443–68, at p. 444.

88 Idem, ‘The Anglo-Norman poets of the twelfth century’, British Quarterly Review, 5, (1847), pp. 159–86, at p. 159.

89 Idem, ‘English medieval embroidery’, Athenaeum, 1108, (1849), pp. 61–3.

90 Idem, ‘Historical element’, p. 443; idem, ‘Letters illustrative of the reign of William III’, Athenaeum, 690, (1841), pp. 43–5.

91 Anon., ‘History of woman’, John Bull, 159 (1843), p. 124.

92 [Blomfield, James], ‘Queen's College, London’, Quarterly Review, 86, (1850), pp. 364–82Google Scholar.

93 F. D. Maurice, A letter to the right hon. & right rev. the lord bishop of London, in reply to the article in no. CLXXII of the Quarterly Review (London, 1850).

94 [Lawrance], ‘Education’, p. 31; idem, ‘Novelties’, p. 209.

95 Kucich, Greg, ‘Romanticism and feminist historiography’, Wordsworth Circle, 24, (1993), pp. 133–40Google Scholar, at p. 136.

96 Idem, ‘Women's historiography and the (dis)embodiment of law: Ann Yearsley, Mary Hays, Elizabeth Benger’, Wordsworth Circle, 33, (2002), pp. 3–7. See also idem, ‘Romanticism and the re-engendering of historical memory’, in Matthew Campbell, Jacqueline M. Labbe, and Sally Shuttleworth, eds., Memory and memorials, 1789–1914 (London, 2000), pp. 15–29.

97 [Lawrance], ‘Novelties’, pp. 194–5.

98 Ibid., pp. 199–200.

99 Ibid., pp. 201–2.

100 Ibid., p. 203. See also idem, ‘History of England under the house of Stuart’, Athenaeum, 703 (1841), p. 304.

101 Idem, ‘Novelties’, p. 203.

102 Idem, ‘Education’, p. 35; [Smith, Sydney], ‘Female education’, Edinburgh Review, 15, (1810), pp. 299–315Google Scholar, at p. 299.

103 Lawrance, ‘Novelties’, p. 215.

104 Ibid., p. 213.

105 Ibid., p. 214.

106 Pedersen, Joyce Senders, ‘The reform of women's secondary and higher education: institutional change and social values in mid and late Victorian England’, History of Education Quarterly, 19, (1979), pp. 61–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at pp. 62–3.

107 [Lawrance], ‘Education’, p. 46.

108 Ibid., pp. 41, 43.

109 Ibid., pp. 42–3.

110 Ibid., pp. 44–6.

111 Idem, ‘Novelties’, p. 210.

112 [Anon.], ‘Historical memoirs of the queens of England’, Gentleman's Magazine, n.s., 10 (Oct. 1838), p. 416.

113 [Anon.] ‘Historical memoirs of the queens of England’, Idler, and Breakfast-Table Companion, 52, (1838), pp. 58–9.

114 [Anon.], ‘The history of woman in England’, New Monthly Magazine and Humorist, 67, (1843), pp. 274–7, at p. 274. Italics in the original.

115 [Sir Harris, Nicolas], ‘Lives of the queens of England’, Athenaeum, 642, (1840), pp. 123–5Google Scholar, at p. 123. See also [Johnstone, Christian Isobel], ‘Hannah Lawrance's historical memoirs of the queens of England’, Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, 5, (1838), pp. 257–63Google Scholar; idem, ‘Historical memoirs of the queens of England [Second Notice]’, pp. 111–14.

116 [Anon.], ‘The history of woman in England’, New Monthly Magazine and Humorist, 67 (1843), p. 277.

117 Elizabeth Stone, The art of needle-work, from the earliest ages, ed. Countess of Wilton [Mary Margaret Egerton] (London, 1840), pp. 62, 65.

118 Ibid., pp. 119–20.

119 [Anon.], ‘The art of needlework’, Athenaeum, 670, (1840), pp. 675–6, at p. 675. See Maitzen, Gender, genre, and Victorian historical writing, pp. 83–93. Maitzen compares Stone's history to Agnes Strickland's.

120 Hannah Lawrance, ‘Shearman's miracle play: a tale of the fourteenth century’, in Thomas Hood, ed., The gem, a literary annual (London, 1829), pp. 292–318.

121 Hannah Lawrance, The treasure-seeker's daughter: a tale of the days of James the First (London, 1852).

122 See Sara Lodge, Thomas Hood and nineteenth-century poetry: work, play and politics (Manchester, 2007), p. 32.

123 Walter Jerrold, Thomas Hood: his life and times (London, 1907), p. 79.

124 Lawrance's article was described in a Cambridge University magazine as ‘deeply interesting, written by one who knew its subject well’. See The light blue: a Cambridge University magazine (5 vols., Cambridge, 1866–71), iii, p. 59.

125 John Clubbe, Victorian forerunner: the later career of Thomas Hood (Durham, NC, 1968), p. 110.

126 J. C. Reid, Thomas Hood (London, 1963), p. 33.

127 [Lawrance, Hannah], ‘Recollections of Thomas Hood’, British Quarterly Review, 46, (1867), pp. 323–54Google Scholar, at p. 335.

128 Leslie A. Marchand, The Athenaeum: a mirror of Victorian culture (Chapel Hill, NC, 1941), p. 67.

129 [Lawrance], ‘Education’, p. 38.

130 Marchand, Athenaeum, p. 75.

131 Watts, Ruth E., ‘The Unitarian contribution to the development of female education, 1790–1850’, History of Education, 9, (1980), pp. 273–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 275.

132 Gleadle, Early feminists, p. 43.

133 See Shelagh Hunter, Harriet Martineau: the poetics of moralism (Aldershot, 1995), p. 60; [Martineau, Harriet], ‘Middle-class education in England: boys’, Cornhill Magazine, 10, (1864), pp. 409–26Google Scholar; idem, ‘Middle-class education in England: girls’, Cornhill Magazine, 10, (1864), pp. 549–98. See also Discipulus [Martineau, Harriet], ‘Female writers on practical divinity’, Monthly Repository, 17, (1822), pp. 593–6Google Scholar; idem, ‘On female education’, Monthly Repository, 18, (1823), pp. 77–81.

134 Mermin, Godiva's ride, p. 55.

135 Gleadle, Early feminists, p. 19.

136 On the Unitarian influence on Wollstonecraft see Watts, ‘Unitarian contribution to the development of female education’, p. 283.

137 R. Tudor Jones, Congregationalism in England, 1662–1962 (London, 1962), p. 246.

138 Mitchell, ‘Lawrance, Hannah’, in Matthew and Harrison, eds., Oxford dictionary of national biography, xxxii, pp. 787–8.

139 [Anon.], ‘Donations & subscriptions’, Missionary Magazine and Chronicle, n.s., 77 (1866), p. 108.

140 E. Paxton Hood, Thomas Binney: his mind life and opinions, doctrinal, denominational, devotional, and practical (London, 1874), p. 223.

141 [Hood, Thomas], ‘Master Humphrey's clock: volume I’, Athenaeum, 680, (1840), pp. 887–8Google Scholar.

142 [Lawrance, Hannah], ‘An excursion train, before steam’, Household Words, 10, (1854), pp. 151–6Google Scholar; idem, ‘Flying coaches’, Household Words, 9, (1854), pp. 608–13; idem, ‘John Dunton was a citizen’, Household Words, 9, (1854), pp. 338–44; idem, ‘Mistress Hannah Woolley’, Household Words, 12, (1855), pp. 18–22; idem, ‘Old domestic intelligence’, Household Words, 10, (1854), pp. 79–83.

143 Charles Dickens to Hannah Lawrance (19 Apr. 1854 and late Apr. 1854), in Graham Storey, Kathleen Tillotson, and Angus Easson, eds., The letters of Charles Dickens (12 vols., Oxford, 1965–2002), vii, pp. 318–19, 323.

144 [Lawrance, Hannah], ‘The diary of the Lady Willoughby’, Hood's Magazine and Comic Miscellany, 2, (1844), pp. 96–103Google Scholar; idem, ‘Madam Waters’ may-day party, a tale of “a hundred years ago” ', Hood's Magazine and Comic Miscellany, 1, (1844), pp. 458–69; idem, ‘Old Mr. Fleming's journey, a tale of a hundred years ago’, Hood's Magazine and Comic Miscellany, 1, (1844), pp. 335–46; Anne Lohrli, ed., Household Words: a weekly journal 1850–1859 conducted by Charles Dickens (Toronto, 1973), p. 338.

145 [Lawrance, Hannah], ‘The modern troubadours’, Fraser's Magazine, 30, (1844), pp. 108–18Google Scholar; idem, ‘The Carlovingien romances of the middle ages’, Fraser's Magazine, 36, (1847), pp. 404–15; idem, ‘Amenities of literature’, Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, n.s., 8 (1841), pp. 638–48; idem, ‘The hand and the ring: a story from the old chroniclers’, Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, n.s., 14 (1847), pp. 440–7; idem, ‘The story of Luke Willingham: a “civil” passage in the civil wars’, Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, n.s., 14 (1847), pp. 147–56; idem, ‘Pauline Bartenau: the Huguenot's daughter’, Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, n.s., 14 (1847), pp. 597–611.

146 Alexander Gordon, ‘Vaughan, Robert (1795–1868)’, rev. Anne Stott, in Matthew and Harrison, eds., Oxford dictionary of national biography, lvi, p. 198.

147 Robert Vaughan, On the study of general history, an introductory lecture, delivered in the university of London, on the evening of February 14, 1834 (London, 1834).

148 Jones, Congregationalism in England, 1662–1962, pp. 212–13.

149 [Johnstone], ‘Historical memoirs of the queens of England [Second Notice]’, p. 113.

150 Cf. Gleadle, Early feminists, p. 172.