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The Spears Mission in the Levant 1941–1944*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 February 2009

Aviel Roshwald
Aviel Roshwald
Affiliation:
Harvard University
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Extract

During the second world war, Syria and Lebanon lay on the fringe of the major Middle Eastern military campaigns fought between the Allied and Axis powers. They stood, however, at the focal point of relations between the British and the Free French, due to the anomalous situation which arose in the Levant states in 1941.

Type
Articles
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 29 , Issue 4 , December 1986 , pp. 897 - 919
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1986

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References

1 See Churchill, Randolph, Lord Derby (London, 1959), ch. XVIGoogle Scholar; Gilbert, Martin, Winston S. Churchill, III (London, 1971), ch. XIX.Google Scholar. Spears also had close ties to the intelligence community both during and after the First World War. For an account of his dealings with the British ‘master spy’, Sidney Reilly, see Andrew, Christopher, Her Majesty's Secret Service (New York, 1986), pp. 287–8Google Scholar.

2 Major-General SirSpears, E. L., Assignment to catastrophe (London, 1959 edn), p. 175Google Scholar.

3 Ibid. p. 620.

4 Spears to prime minister, 10 Apr. 1941, P[ublic] R[ecord] O[ffice], PREM 3 422/1; Spears, tel. to P.M., 7 May 1941, P.R.O., FO 371/27322/E2018; Spears Cairo diary, 11 May 1941, M[iddle] E[ast] C[entre, St Anthony's College, Oxford] Spears papers I; Spears, , Fulfilment of a mission (London, 1977)Google Scholar, ch. VI.

5 Spears tel., 19 July 1941, FO 371/27302/E4110. It should be pointed out that Churchill's private secretary had already described Spears' relationship with de Gaulle as ‘correct though not cordial’ in December 1940 (Colville, John, The fringes of power, 10 Downing Street diaries 1939–1955 (New York, 1986)Google Scholar, entry for 13 Dec. 1940, p. 312; see also entry for 10 Nov. 1940, p. 290).

6 Lyttelton to P.M., 21 July 1941, P.R.O., FO 371/27302/E4044. Gaunson, A. B. (‘Churchill, de Gaulle, Spears and the Levant affair, 1941’, Historical Journal, XXVII, 3 (1984), 697–713)CrossRefGoogle Scholar has correctly stressed the destructive effect of the personal antagonism between Churchill and de Gaulle on efforts to reconcile Anglo-Free French differences. His choice of the secret protocol as an illustration of this point appears flawed, however. Gaunson argues that General Wilson's acceptance of the protocol enjoyed Churchill's ‘blessing in advance, through his wire to Lyttelton’. As Gaunson himself points out, though, Churchill's instructions to Lyttelton were only that he should accede to Vichy's demand for the exclusion of the Free French from the negotiations. It is highly unlikely that Churchill would have approved of the secret clause facilitating the repatriation of Vichy forces from the Levant. In any case, Wilson himself was unaware of the prime minister's cable to Lyttelton.

7 Spears Cairo diary, 20 July 1941, M.E.C., Spears papers I; M.E.C., Killearn diaries, 21 July 1941; Spears, , Fulfilment, pp. 137–8Google Scholar.

8 Spears Cairo diary, 21 July 1941, M.E.C., Spears papers I.

9 De Gaulle-Lyttelton agreements, 24–27 July 1941, P.R.O., FO 406/79/E5265.

10 Auchinleck tel. to W.O., 2 Aug. 1941, FO 371/27304/E4396; Lampson tel., 6 Aug. 1941, FO 371/27308/E5256; Spears tel., 12 Aug. 1941, FO 371/27305/E4648; Engert tel., 5 Aug. 1941, F[oreign] R[elations of the] U[nited] S[tates] 1941, III, 780–2; Gaulle, Charles de, Mémoires de guerre, 1 (Paris, 1954), 170–80Google Scholar; Catroux, Georges, Dans la bataille de Méditerranée (Paris, 1949)Google Scholar, ch. XVII; Spears, Fulfilment, ch. XI; Duroselle, J.-B., L'abime (Paris, 1982), pp. 293–4Google Scholar.

11 Lyttelton to P.M., 15 Aug. 1941, P.R.O., PREM 3 422/14.

12 Kersaudy, Francois, Churchill and de Gaulle (New York, 1983), p. 151. Churchill was so infuriated that he pressed to have de Gaulle replaced as head of the Free French movementGoogle Scholar (see Mickelsen, Martin, ‘Another Fashoda: The Anglo-Free French conflict over the Levant, May–September 1941’, Revue fran'aise de I'histoire d'outre-mer, LXIII, 230 (1976), 75–100)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Record of Churchill-de Gaulle meeting, 12 Sep. 1941, P.R.O., PREM 3 422/3; Spears Cairo diary, various entries for Sep. 1941.

14 Spears Cairo diary, p. 163, M.E.C., Spears papers I.

15 Spears tel., 14 Aug. 1941, P.R.O., PREM 3 422/14.

16 Note by Catroux, 24 July 1941, M[inistère des] A[ffaires] E[trangéres, Paris], Guerre 1939–1945, Vichy-Levant 39.

17 Spears tel., 23 Sept. 1941, P.R.O., FO 371/27310/E6012.

18 P.M.'s minute, 25 Sept. 1941 and Eden's response, FO 371/27311/E6171.

19 Minutes of Ist and 2nd meetings of Law's interdepartmental commitee on syria, 10 and 14 July 1941, M.O. 5 P.R.O., WO 106/ 3075; Lyttelton to FO, II July 1941, P.R.O., FO 371/27346/E3746; W.O. to C.-in-C. Middle East, 11 July 1941, FO 371/27299/E3794; minute by secretary of state for war, 14 July 1941, P.R.O., PREM 3 422/6; M.E.C., Killearn diaries, 14 July 1944

20 1944 table of comparison showing sections strength of Spears mission and the délégation générale, M.E.C., Spears papers II/6.

21 Catroux, , Bataille, pp. 195–6Google Scholar.

22 Longrigg, Stephen H., Syria and Lebanon under French mandate (Oxford, 1958), p. 272Google Scholar.

23 Report by Spears on first year of wheat office, 19 June 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/3520U/E3698.

24 Catroux, , Bataille, p. 270Google Scholar; see also Spears, Fulfilment, ch. XIII.

25 C.N.F. to Catroux, 9 May 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Londres C.N.F. 59.

26 Catroux, Batatlle, ch. XXIX.

27 Catroux tel., 20 May 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Londres C.N.F. 59; minutes of Cairo meetings, 11–13 May 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31472/E3310; see also Spears' wheat office report, as cited above.

28 Catroux, , Bataille, p. 272Google Scholar

29 Spears' wheat office report; Spears, Fulfilment, ch. XIV.

30 As Churchill put it in his parliamentary speech of 9 Sept. 1941, ‘We did not go… [to the Levant] in order to deprive France of her historic position in Syria, except in so far as is necessary to fulfil our obligations and pledges to the Syrian population. There must be no question, even in war-time, of a mere substitution of Free French for Vichy French interests’ (Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons 1940–1941, VIII, 75).

31 Eden to Spears, 6 February 1942, P.R.O., FO 406/80/E280.

32 Spears tel., 7 April 1942 and F.O. to Spears, 12 April 1942, P.R.O., F.O. 371/31471/E2224.

33 Spears tel., 21 April 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31472/E2482; letter from Dejean to Eden and copies of two telegrams from Catroux to de Gaulle, 15 and 30 April 1942, E2742; record of conversation between Spears and Lebanese premier Daouk, 17 April 1942, E2891; Engert, tels., 15 and 18 April 1942, FRUS 1942, IV, 586–7Google Scholar.

34 Spears tel., 15 April 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31471/E2379.

35 Spears tel., 24 April 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31472/E2569.

36 Spears tel., 24 April 1942 and F.O. to Casey, 30 April 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31472/E2576.

37 Letter from Naccache to Eden, July 1942, FO 371/31474/E4428; Catroux to de Gaulle, 29 April 1942, M.A.E., Guere 1939–1945, Londres C.N.F. 40; Catroux, Bataille, ch. XXVIII.

38 Spears tel., 14 june 1942 and F.O. to Spears, 19 June 1942, P.R.O. FO 371/31473/E3654; Spears tel., 25 June 1942 and minute by Maurice Peterson, E3833.

39 Ibid., minute by Peterson.

40 Casey tels., 22 Apr. 1942 and F.O. to Casey, 25 Apr. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31472/E2503.

41 Minutes of Cairo meetings, 11–13 May 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31472/E3310; Engert, tel., 30 May 1942, FRUS 1942, IV, 596–8Google Scholar.

42 De Gaulle to Catroux, 28 May 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Londres C.N.F. 40.

43 Dejean to Peake (head of British mission to F.N.C. in London), 30 May 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31473/E3443; aide-memoire for F.N.C, 19 June 1942, E3764; Spears' weekly political summary no. 13, 2 July 1942, E3977.

44 Catroux, , Bataille, pp. 266–7Google Scholar.

45 Spears tels., 25 and 26 July 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31474/E4447; Spears tel., 4 August 1942, E4640.

46 Spears tel., 25 July 1942, minute by P.M. and F.O. to Spears, 31 July 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/3H74/E4441.

47 Ibid., minutes by Caccia.

48 Harvey, John (ed.), War diaries of Oliver Harvey (London, 1978), 26 07 1942Google Scholar.

49 Casey tel., 3 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31474/E4596; Spears' weekly political summary for Lebanon, 20 July 1942, E4507; Spears tel., 25 July 1942, E4448.

50 Casey tel., 14 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31474/E5070; Kersaudy, , Churchill and de Gaulle, pp. 198–9Google Scholar.

51 De Gaulle to Pleven and Dejean, 24 Aug. 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Londres C.N.F. 38.

52 Spears' political summary for Lebanon, 19 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31474/E4899.

53 De Gaulle to Churchill, 15 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31474/E5072; de Gaulle to Churchill, 24 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3 422/10.

54 Spears Levant diary, 23 Aug. 1942, M.E.C. Spears papers I/I.

55 Gwynn, tel., 23 Aug. 1942, FRUS 1942, IV, 620Google Scholar; see also Gwynn tel., 16 Aug. 1942, pp. 613–6.

56 Rooker (British liaison with F.N.C.) tel., 12 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31474/E4761; see also Kersaudy, above.

57 De Gaulle tel., 1 Sept. 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Londres C.N.F. 38 (text dated 2 Sept. also found in Gaulle, Charles de, Lettres, notes et carnets, juillet 1941–mai 1943 (Paris, 1982), 360–2)Google Scholar; Rooker tel., 3 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31476/E5217.

58 De Gaulle tel., 16 Aug. 1942 and Dejean to de Gaulle, 18 Aug. 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945 Londres. C.N.F. 45; minute by Strang, 29 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31475/E5133.

59 Ibid.

60 Casey tel., 5 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31476/E5259.

61 Casey to de Gaulle, 5 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31476/E5260.

62 Helleu (reporting conversation with Casey) to de Gaulle, II Sept. 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945 Londres C.N.F. 38.

63 FO to Casey, 2 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31476/E5190.

64 Casey to Beirut, 31 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31475/E5177; de Gaulle to Churchill, 1 Sept. 1942, FO 371/31476/E5184.

65 Dejean to de Gaulle, 10 Sept. 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945 Londres C.N.F. 43; Dejean tels., 12 Sept. 1942, Londres C.N.F. 38; F.O. minutes, P.R.O., F.O. 371/31476/E5190.

66 De Gaulle tel., 10 Sept. 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945 Londres C.N.F. 38; de, Gaulle, Mimmres de Guerre, II (Paris, 1956), 23–4Google Scholar; Kersaudy, , Churchill and de Gaulle, pp. 200–2Google Scholar.

67 Dejean to de Gaulle and de Gaulle to Pleven, 12 Sept. 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945 Londres C.N.F. 38; Rooker tels., 9 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31477/E5341; Winant tel., 8 Oct. 1942, FRUS 1942, IV, 636; de, Gaulle, Mimmres, 11, 28–9Google Scholar.

68 Record of 30 Sept. 1942 Churchill–de Gaulle meeting, P.R.O., FO 371/31950, as quoted in Kersaudy, , Churchill and de Gaulle, pp. 202–9Google Scholar; Harvey, , Diaries, 1 10 1942Google Scholar; record of meeting between Sir Orme Sargent and Dejean, 2 Oct. 1942, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945 Londres C.N.F. 43.

69 Draft interpretive agreement on de Gaulle-Lyttelton agreements, P.R.O., FO 371/31478/E5955; F.O. to Casey, 18 Oct. 1942, F.O. 371/31479/E5989; Catroux, Bataille, ch. XXXI. De Gaulle had been concerned for quite a while over what he saw as Dejean's weak and compromising attitude vis-à-vis the British (see de Gaulle to Pleven, 5 Sept. 1942, de, Gaulle, Leltres, 1941–1943, P. 370)Google Scholar.

70 Hopkinson (Cairo) to Peterson, 16 Nov 1942, P R O, FO 371 31479/E8779, F O minute, 14 Dec 1942, P R O, FO 371/32153/Z10307, s[ecretary] of s[tate] to Wadsworth (Beirut), 2 Dec 1942, FRUS 1942, IV, 637

71 Minute by M Peterson, 16 Oct 1942 and F O to Casey, 29 Nov 1942, P R O, FO 371/31480/E7045

72 Harvey, , Diaries, 14 09 1942Google Scholar

73 M E C, Spears Levant diary, 23 Aug 1942

74 Spears political summary, 9 June 1943, P R O, FO 371/35177/E3386, Beirut tel, 22 June 1943, P R O, FO 371/35213/E3617, Catroux tel, 25 May 1943, M A E, Guerre 1939–1945, Londres C N F 41, delegation française Cairo tel, 25 June 1943, Londres C N F 44

75 Helleu tel, 12 April 1943 and note for Massigli, 12 July 1943, M A E, Guerre 1939–1945 Londres C N F 44, M E C, Coghill diary, note 41

76 Summary of 15 July 1943 London meeting including Eden, Spears and Massigh, P R O, FO 371/35179/E4286

77 Helleu tels., 22 and 26 June 1943, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945 Londres C.N.F. 44; Lascelles (Beirut) tel., 23 June 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35178/E3785.

78 Spears tel., 9 Aug. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35180/E4697; Spears, , Fulfilment, p. 222Google Scholar.

79 Minute from P.M. to Eden, 28 June 1943, P.R.O., PREM 3 422/12; see also 28 June 1943 war cabinet discussion of the issue in W.M. (43) 89th mtg., item 3, P.R.O., CAB 65/34.

80 Harvey, , Diaries, 6 and 13 07 1943Google Scholar.

81 M.E.C., Spears Levant diary, 15 July 1943; see also drafts of Spears' new instructions as revised and counter-revised by the foreign office and Spears, P.R.O., FO 371/32513/E4229.

82 Lascelles tel., 7 July 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35178/E3966.

83 See Hourani, Albert, Syria and Lebanon, a political essay (Oxford, 1946)Google Scholar, ch. VIII.

84 Helleu tel., 22 May 1943 and Catroux tel., 25 May 1943, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945 Londres C.N.F. 41.

85 Lascelles tel., 23 June 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35177/E3651; Wadsworth, tel., 24 06 1943, FRUS 1943, IV, 176–8Google Scholar.

86 Helleu tels., 24 and 25 June 1943, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Londres C.N.F. 41.

87 Weekly political summary no. 68, 21 July 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35179/E4281.

88 Spears tel. 1 Aug. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35179/E417; Wadsworth, tels., 2 and 4 08 1943, FRUS 1943, IV, pp. 980–5Google Scholar.

89 Spears' political summary no. 69, 28 July 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35179/E4459.

90 Report on ‘ha-Levanon’; (the Lebanon) by Eliahu Epstein, Jerusalem, 1943, C[entral] Z[ionist] A[rchive, Jerusalem], S25/9027.

91 Hourani, , Syria, p. 257Google Scholar.

92 Report by officer just back from Levant, November 1943, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945) Alger CFLN-GPRF 999.

93 Helleu tel., 4 Oct. 1943, Alger CFLN-GPRF 999; Undated report by sû;reté générate on conduct of Lebanese elections, Alger CFLN-GPRF 1004.

94 Spears tel., 6 Sept. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35182/E5539; Spears tel., 17 Sept. 1943, E5817; Wadsworth, tel., 3 Sept. 1943, FRUS 1943, iv, 987–9Google Scholar.

95 Report by M Sasson, E., ‘Le goraloh ha-medini shel ha-Levanon’ (Of Lebanon's political fate), 4 10 1943Google Scholar and report on Lebanese elections, 25 Sept. 1943, C.Z.A. S25/5577.

96 Spears' political summary no. 74, 1 Sept. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35181/E5281.

97 Wadsworth, tel., 22 Sept. 1943, FRUS 1943, iv, 992–3Google Scholar.

98 Spears tel., 20 Sept. 1943, P.R.O., Fo 371/35182/E5674; Spears tel., 14 Oct. 1943, E6214; Helleu tels., 25 Sept. and 4 Oct. 1943, Alger CFLN-GPRF 999.

99 Khalidi, Walid, Conflict and violence in Lebanon (Harvard, 1979)Google Scholar, note 27 to ch. 1.

100 Spears' political summary no. 80, 13 Oct. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35182/E6203.

101 Spears tel., 2 November 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35183/E6631.

102 Spears tel., 26 Oct. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35183/E6459.

103 Spears' political summary no. 83, 3 Nov. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35183/E6713.

104 Spears tels., 12 Nov. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35184/E6907; Helleu tel., 11 Nov. 1943, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Alger CFLN-GPRF 1575; Catroux, BalailU, ch. XLJV; de, Gaulle, Mhnoires, 11, 194–7Google Scholar; Spears, Fulfilment, ch. xvn; Duroselle, , L'abime, p. 500Google Scholar.

105 F.O. to Macmillan, 12 Nov. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35184/E6848; W.M. (43) 153rd mtg., 12 Nov. 1943, minute 1, P.R.O., CAB 65/36.

106 S. of s. to Wiley, (Algiers), 12 Nov. 1943, FRUS 1943, iv, 1022Google Scholar.

107 Macmillan tels., 19 Nov. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/35188/E7155; de Gaulle to Massigli, 13 Nov. 1943, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Alger CFLN-GPRF 1005; de Gaulle to Catroux, 19 Nov. 1943, de, Gaulle, Lettres, notes et cornets, Juin 1943–Mai 1943, (Paris, 1983), p. 112Google Scholar.

108 Catroux tel., 23 Nov. 1943, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Alger CFLN-GPRF 1468; Massigli to Catroux, 24 Nov. 1943, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Alger CFLN-GPRF 1578; Catroux, Bataillf. ch. XLV.

109 Spears' political summary no. 116, 21 June 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40301/E3987; Spears tel., 24 june 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40312/E3738.

110 Spears tel., 27 Apr. 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40111/E2599; Cooper (Algiers) tel., 1 May 1944, F.O. to Algiers, 3 May 1944 and F.O. to Spears 3 May 1944, E2704; Spears tel., 5 May 1944, E2762. Beynet insisted he would not have behaved differently in any case and that Spears was just trying to inflate his own importance by engaging in unnecessary interference (Beynet tel., 5 May 1944, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Alger CFLN-GPRF 1006).

111 December 1943 report by Oliva-Roget (délégui in Syria) and Massigli tel., 2 May 1944, M.A.E., Guerre 1939–1945, Alger CFLN-GPRF 1006.

112 Political report by Beynet, 28 June 1944, M. A. E., Guerre 1939–1945, Alger CFLN-GPRF 1002.

113 Cooper tel., 22 June, 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40313/E3888.

114 Note from Eden to P.M., 29june 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40313/E4066.

115 Spears tel., 3 July 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40313/E3893; Spears tel., 9july 1944, E4050.

116 F.O. to Spears, igjuly 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40314/E4368.

117 Spears, , Fulfilment, p. 295Google Scholar.

118 Letter from the Beirut chancery to eastern department, 10 August 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40347/E5186.

119 Ibid., minute by Hankey.

120 Mackereth tel., 16 Aug., 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40302/E4980; Mackereth tel., 18 Aug. 1944, E5012; letter from Mackereth, 2 Sept. 1944, E5588; Mackereth tel., 21 Aug. 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40316/E5105.

121 Mackereth correspondence, Sept.–Oct. 1944, M.E.C., Spears papers II A/4; Spears, , Fulfilment, p. 295Google Scholar. Upon his return to Beirut, Spears had Mackereth removed from his mission.

122 Note from Eden to Spears, 25 Aug. 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40302/E5237.

123 Extracts from Spears-Eden conversation, 1 Sept. 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40347/E5415.

124 Ibid.; letter from Baxter (eastern department) to Spears, 19 Sept. 1944, E5239.

125 Letter to Churchill, 2 Sept. 1944, M.E.C., Spears papers II/7.

126 Ibid., Churchill to Spears, 3 Sept. 1944.

127 Spears tels., 11 and 14 Sept. 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40302/E5575; Spears tel., 21 Sept. 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40112/E5663; Spears tel., 21 Sept. 1944, E5811; Wadsworth, tel., 19 Sept. 1944, FRUS 1944, V, 780–2Google Scholar.

128 Minute by Lawrence, P.R.O., FO 371/40302/E5575.

129 Spears Levant diary, summary of events written in Jan. 1945, M.E.C., Spears papers I/1.

130 Spears tel., 25 Sept. 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40304/E5887; note from P.M. to Eden, 3 Oct. 1944, P.R.O., PREM 3, 423/11.

131 Letter to Churchill, 24 Oct. 1944, M.E.C. Spears papers II/7.

132 Report by Spears for Eden, 8 December 1944, P.R.O., FO 371/40307/E7799.

133 Levant diary summary, Jan. 1945, M.E.C, Spears Papers I/1.

134 W.M. (45) 3, P.R.O., CAB 65/53; see Longrigg, , Syria and Lebanon, pp. 345–53Google Scholar.

135 For an excellent account of the 1945 Levant crisis, see Louis, Wm. Roger, The British empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951 (Oxford, 1984), pp. 147–72Google Scholar.

136 Spears' image as an outsider is epitomized by the account of the head of the British security mission in the Levant of his first impression of the man: ‘Quite unaccountably my reaction was that he was a Jew-and I am not Jew conscious-it was only later that I heard the speculative gossip that his original name was Speier and that he was a Jew from Alsatia. I still do not know his origins.… He is certainly 100% bilingual in French and English and if anything I have a feeling that French comes the easier to him’ (M.E.C., Coghill diary, explanatory note no. 25).

137 Author's interview with Sir P. M. Crosthwaite, London, 5 Jan. 1985.

138 Catroux identifies this as the turning point in Spears' relations with de Gaulle (Catroux, , Bataille, p. 193)Google Scholar. The Free French consul in Jerusalem also thought Spears' animosity towards de Gaulle arose from the latter's refusal to serve as Spears' tool (report by Wilensky on conversation with du Chayler, 15 Nov. 1943, C.Z.A. S25/5577).

139 Kedourie, Elie, ‘Pan-Arabism and British policy’, ch. VIII of The Chatham House version and other Middle-Eastern studies-new edition (University press of New England, 1984)Google Scholar.

140 Catroux, , Bataille, p. 195Google Scholar.

141 This analysis may be contrasted with that of Martin Mickelsen (‘Another Fashoda’), which ascribes a much more systematic character and conscious deviousness to British policy towards the French in the Levant.

142 Harvey, , War diaries, 2 10 1942Google Scholar.