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Doctorates for American Women, 1868–1907

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2017

Margaret W. Rossiter
Margaret W. Rossiter*
Affiliation:
Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley, California
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Extract

Although the lofty rhetoric accompanying the founding of the major American graduate schools seemed to indicate that they would be open to both sexes, the first women applicants quickly learned that this access was often not available. Their eventual admission and first degrees, which came as early as the 1870s at Boston University and as late as the 1960s at Princeton University, was the result of a series of skirmishes at several European as well as American universities, at least two major strategies, a large cast of participants, and the active support (financial and otherwise) of a few women's groups, especially the young Association of Collegiate Alumnae (ACA).

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Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 22 , Issue 2 , Summer 1982 , pp. 159 - 183
Copyright
Copyright © 1982 by History of Education Society 

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References

Footnotes

*Office for the History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley CA. 94720. This article is part of a larger project supported by the National Science Foundation grants SOC 77-22159 and SOC 79-07562. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Gayle Gullett Escobar have had many helpful criticisms of earlier drafts.Google Scholar

1. Rudolph, Frederick, The American College and University, A History (New York, 1962) and Veysey, Laurence R., The Emergence of the American University (Chicago, 1965). Woody, Thomas, History of Women's Education in the United States (New York, 1929), II, pp. 333–40 discusses it as does Hugh Hawkins' Pioneer: A History of the Johns Hopkins University, 1874–1889 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1960) in an excellent chapter on “The Uninvited.”Google Scholar

2. Lange, Helene, The Higher Education of Women in Europe, trans, by Klemm, L. R. (New York, 1890), pp. xxiii and chapter 8; “Address by M. Carey Thomas,” in Addresses Delivered at the Opening of the Graduate Department of Women [at the University of Pennsylvania] on Wednesday, May 4th, 1892 (Philadelphia, 1892), pp. 9–10.Google Scholar

3. Walsh, Mary Roth, “Doctors Wanted, No Women Need Apply,” Sexual Barriers in the Medical Profession, 1835–1975 (New Haven, 1977), pp. 28–32, 164–6. Despite its broad title, this book barely touches on the history of women's medical education.Google Scholar

4. “Richards” in James, Edward, et al., eds., Notable American Women, 1607–1950 (3 vols.; Cambridge, 1971), (hereinafter abbreviated as NAW) and Richards, Robert, Robert Hallowell Richards, His Mark (Boston, 1936), p. 153.Google Scholar

5. “Richards” in NAW and Hunt, Caroline L., The Life of Ellen H. Richards (Boston, 1912), p. 88.Google Scholar

6. Hawkins, , Pioneer, chapter 14; “Ladd-Franklin” in NAW. See also n. 48 below.Google Scholar

7. “Item 27: Class notes for 1867 (January 12, 1868),” Maria Mitchell Memorabilia, microfilm, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia (I thank Sally Gregory Kohlstedt for this reference); “Whitney” and “Whiting” in NAW; Whiting, Sarah F., “History of the Physics Department at Wellesley College from 1878 to 1912,” unpublished manuscript, 1912, in Wellesley College Archives. Edward Pickering was an early supporter of scientific education for women ([Pickering, Edward], “Education,” Atlantic Monthly, 33 [1874]: 760–4). He was also a hearty supporter of the young Association of College Alumnae (Edward Pickering to Marion Talbot, December 18, 1882, Marion Talbot Papers, Special Collections, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago); Genth, : “Women in the University,” Philadelphia Public Ledger and Daily Transcript, July 25, 1877, clipping in Rachel Bodley Scrapbook, p. 179, Rachel Bodley Papers, Archives and Special Collections, (Women's) Medical College of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.Google Scholar

8. Hawkins, Hugh, Pioneer, chapter 14; “Thomas” and “Ladd-Franklin” in NAW. Sylvester was familiar with some of Ladd's previous publications. For more on Johns Hopkins, see also n. 48–50 below.Google Scholar

9. Eells, Walter Crosby, “Earned Doctorates for Women in the Nineteenth Century,” American Association of University Professors Bulletin, 42 (1956): 647 and 651.Google Scholar

10. Freeman Galpin, W., Syracuse University, The Pioneer Days (Syracuse, N.Y., 1952), chapter 14; for mention of Winchell's later support of early women doctorates at the University of Michigan, see Kellum, Lewis B., “The Museum of Paleontology,” in Donnelly, Walter A., et al., eds., The University of Michigan, An Encyclopedia Survey (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1942–58), IV, p. 1488; Wooster's graduate school was later seen as an “unfortunate” addition. (Notestein, Lucy Lilian, Wooster of the Middle West [New Haven, 1937], I, pp. 89–90.)Google Scholar

11. See Thorp, Margaret Farrand, Smith Grants Radcliffe's First Ph.D. [to Kate Morris (later Cone) in 1882] (Northampton, Mass., 1965).Google Scholar

12. Gulliver, : Eells, , “Earned Doctorates…,” p. 646; Crow, : Galpin, , Syracuse University, p. 217, and Nollen, John S., Grinnell College (Iowa City, Iowa, 1953), p. 87; Hooker, : Eells, , “Earned Doctorates,” p. 651 and American Men of Science (3rd ed.; Garrison, N.Y., 1921), p. 328; “Clapp” and “White” in NAW; Slosson, : Eells, , “Earned Doctorates…,” p. 651 and American Men of Science (3rd ed.; Garrison, N.Y., 1921), p. 632; Cook, : Eells, , “Earned Doctorates…,” p. 651 and American Men of Science (5th ed.; Garrison, New York, 1933), p. 225.Google Scholar

13. Bancroft, Jane M. Ph.D., “Occupations and Professions for College-bred Women,” Education, 5(1885): 486–95; Crow, Martha Foote, “The Status of Foreign Collegiate Education for Women,” Publications of the ACA, series 2, no. 37(1891) and, from Zurich, , “Women in European Universities,” The Nation, 54(March 31, 1892): 247.Google Scholar

14. Notestein, , Wooster, I, p. 90.Google Scholar

15. Meigs, Cornelia, What Makes a College? The History of Bryn Mawr (New York, 1956) mentions the graduate school only briefly. See also “The Academic Committee's Report on the Bryn Mawr School,” Bryn Mawr Alumnae Bulletin, 7(1927): 3–36 (I thank Gertrude Reed for sending me a copy); Bliss, Eleanor, “Bryn Mawr Studies Its Ph.D.'s,” AAUW Journal, 48 (1954): 14–16; Miller, Ann, ed., A College in Dispersion, Women of Bryn Mawr, 1896–1975 (Boulder, Colorado, 1975), especially Tables 123 and 124. A full history of the Bryn Mawr Graduate School is a great desideratum now that the college's archives are open and the M. Carey Thomas Papers available.Google Scholar

16. Carey Thomas, M., “Present Tendencies in Women's College and University Education,” Publications of the ACA, series 3, no. 17 (02. 1908): 58–62; Calkins, Mary, “The Relation of College Teaching to Research,” Journal of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, vol. 4 (1911): 78–80; “Washburn” in NAW and Margaret Washburn to Christine Ladd-Franklin, February 20, 1914, Christine Ladd-Franklin Papers, Special Collections, Butler Library, Columbia University.Google Scholar

17. The Nation, 49(1889): 426–7 and 446–7; 54(1892): 247; 57(1893): 483–4; 58(1894): 116–7, 137, 151–2, 154, 193, 212; 59(1894): 232–3, 247–8, 268; 64(1897): 223–4, 262. (One may also see Christine Ladd-Franklin's hand here, since both she and her husband were frequent contributors to the Nation). Lange, Helene, Higher Education of Women in Europe, trans. by Klemm, L. R. (New York, 1890); “A Profession for Women,” Popular Science Monthly, 38(1890–1): 701–2.Google Scholar

18. Woody, Thomas, History of Women's Education, II, pp. 333–40. There is some indication that the doctorate given by the University of Pennsylvania to a woman physician in 1880 may have been to avoid giving her a bachelors degree (and thus condoning undergraduate coeducation. Her degree was later reduced to a B.S.). (Meyerson, Martin and Winegrad, Dilys Pegler, Gladly Learn and Gladly Teach, Franklin and His Heirs at the University of Pennsylvania, 1740–1976 (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1978), p. 122. See also the peculiarities surrounding Mary Pennington's doctorate at Pennsylvania in 1895 (Heggie, Barbara, “Profiles, Ice Woman,” New Yorker 17[September 6, 1941]: 23–4.) The best discussion I have seen of the complex situation at Columbia and Barnard is in Rosenberg, Rosalind, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism. (New Haven, 1982), chap. 4.Google Scholar

19. Hadley, Arthur T., “The Admission of Women as Graduate Students at Yale,” Educational Review, 3(1892): 486–9; Dwight, Timothy, “Education for Women at Yale,” Forum, 13(1892): 451–63; Report of the President of Yale University for the Year Ending December 31, 1891, p. 25. See also Yale University Corporation Records, Book 1876–1900 (reel 6), March 3, 1892, p. 297 and “Women in Post Graduate Courses,” Yale Alumni Weekly, 1(1891–2), no. 23 (March 22, 1892), p. [3]. I thank Patricia Bodak Stark and Judith Schiff for assistance.Google Scholar

20. Both Dwights are in the Dictionary of American Biography; the Dwight Family Papers at the Yale University Archives have no material on this episode; Furniss, Edna S., The Graduate School of Yale, A Brief History (New Haven, 1965), pp. 72–3; and Hadley, Morris, Arthur Twining Hadley (New Haven, 1948), pp. 68–70, 79, and 160–3.Google Scholar

21. Talbot, Marion to Shinn, Millicent, August 27, 1892, Millicent Shinn Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. (She also reported that women had won three out of five Yale fellowships). Talbot, Marion, History of the Chicago Association of Collegiate Alumnae, 1888–1917 (Chicago, 1920), p. 6. The Association of Collegiate Alumnae also put out a bulletin on the opening of Yale, , “Notes on Graduate Instruction, Yale University,” Publications of the ACA, series 2, no. 37–2(1892).Google Scholar

22. Woody, , History of Women's Education, II, p. 336; Storr, Richard J., Harper's University, The Beginning (Chicago, 1966), p. 109; “Palmer” in NAW.Google Scholar

23. Eells, , “Earned Doctorates…,” p. 646 and “Clapp” in NAW.Google Scholar

24. Ibid., p. 648 Google Scholar

25. Thus at the University of Chicago, Whitman, Charles O., professor of zoology, had six women among his 41 Ph.D.'s (“Biographical Sketch of Charles O. Whitman,” Journal of Morphology, 22(1911): xlvi–xlvii); Coulter, John Merle, professor of botany, had 25 women among his 82 doctorates (A Record of the Doctors in Botany of the University of Chicago 1897–1916, Presented to John Merle Coulter by the Doctors in Botany [Chicago, 1916];) and Dickson, Leonard E., professor of mathematics, had at least sixteen women among his Ph.D.'s (Archibald, Raymond Clare, A Semicentennial History of the American Mathematical Society, 1888–1938 [New York, 1938], vol. 1, p. 185.) [Corwin, Margaret T., ed.] Alumnae, Graduate School, Yale University, 1894–1920 (New Haven, 1920) lists its 117 women doctorates to date. Introductory statements by department chairmen show how welcome they were in some departments.Google Scholar

26. Women schoolteachers flocked to New York University's School of Pedagogy, because, as graduates of normal colleges, they were prohibited from entering its Graduate School. Because the School of Pedagogy was so feminized, its administration organized a Woman's Advisory Council of wealthy New Yorkers who covered the School's annual deficits for many years. One member, Helen Gould, the daughter of financier Jay Gould, gave NYU more than $2 million in contributions. (Chamberlain, Joshua L., ed., Universities and Their Sons, New York University, Its History, Influence, Equipment and Characteristics (Boston, 1901 and 1903), I, pp. 240–2 and Jones, Theodore F., ed., New York University, 1832–1932 (New York, 1933), ch. 14.)Google Scholar

27. For example, Columbia's Latin Department gave no degrees to women before 1900, perhaps because of the presence of Harry Thurston Peck, author of the highly anti-feminist, “For Maids and Mothers, The Overtaught Woman,” Cosmopolitan, 26(1899): 329–36. He was involved in several sexual scandals and to judge from biographical accounts was not the intellectual giant his own article claimed all men were (DAB, vol. 14, pp. 377–9 and National Cyclopedia of American Biography 30 (1943), pp. 8–9).Google Scholar

28. Stanley, G. Hall of Clark University later claimed that it had been open to women since its founding in 1887 (Life and Confessions of a Psychologist [New York, 1924], p. 318), but Carey Thomas, M., who kept close watch over how women were faring at the various graduate schools, stated in 1900 that Clark was close to them. She thought this particularly blatant discrimination, since Clark's principal field was pedagogy, which would otherwise have attracted many women there. (Carey Thomas, M., Education of Women published as volume 7 of Butler, Nicholas Murray, ed., Monographs on Education in the United States, Department of Education for the United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 (1900), pp. 349–50 n. 3. Clark enrolled its first woman the next year (Wilson, Louis N., comp., List of Degrees Granted at Clark University and Clark College, 1889–1920, published as Publications of the Clark University Library, vol. 6, no. 3 [December 1920], p. 11.)Google Scholar

29. [“Women Students at Leipzig”], Atlantic Monthly, 44(1879): 788–91; for the endless refusals that awaited women applicants to German universities in the 1880s, see Dole, Nathan H., “Biographical Sketch” in Michael, Helen Abbott, Studies in Plant and Organic Chemistry and Literary Papers (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1907), 26–87. On Zurich, see Bridges, Flora, “Coeducation in Swiss Universities,” Popular Science Monthly, 38(1890–1): 524–530 and Die Universitat Zurich, 1833–1933, und Ihre Verlaufer (Zurich, 1938), pt V, ch. 9. Webster, Helen D., “Our Debt to Zurich,” in Sewall, May Wright, ed., The World's Congress of Representative Women (Chicago, 1894), vol. 2, pp. 692–9 is superficial. Russian students, apparently including women, often went abroad for graduate training in these years (Vucinich, Alexander, Science in Russian Culture, 1861–1917 (Stanford, 1970), and Meijer, Jan M., Knowledge and Revolution, The Russian Colony in Zurich, 1870–1873 (Assen, Netherlands, 1955).Google Scholar

30. Ladd-Franklin, Christine, “Report of Committee on Endowment of Fellowship,” Publications of the ACA, series 2, no. 7 (1888); “Fellowship Fund,” ibid. no. 11 (1889); “The European Fellowship,” ibid. no. 24 (1890); Ladd-Franklin, Christine, “The Usefulness of Fellowships,” ibid. no. 31 (1890). Members of the committee were: Ladd-Franklin, Christine, Richards, Ellen, Palmer, Alice Freeman, Comstock, Anna Botsford, Stephens, Kate, Barnes, Mary Sheldon, and Hersey, Heloise Edwina. There is some correspondence about the committee in 1889–90 from Christine Ladd-Franklin and Marion Talbot in the Kate Stephens Collection, University Archives, Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Ladd-Franklin discussed the issue of whether Fellows could be engaged or married women in CLF to Kate Stephens, March 27, 1890. A list of Fellows appears in Maltby, Margaret (comp.), History of the Fellowships Awarded by the American Association of University Women, 1888–1929, with the Vitas of the Fellows (Wash, D.C. [1929].) They are also discussed in Talbot, Marion and Rosenberry, Lois M., The History of the American Association of University Women, 1881–1931, (Boston, 1931), Chapter 10, and Talbot, Marion, “Mrs. Richard's Relation to the Association of Collegiate Alumnae,” Journal of the ACA, 5(1912): 302–4. Bryn Mawr College started its own European fellowship in 1891 (“The Academic Committee's Report…,” (n. 15), pp. 7 and 8n, and the Women's Education Association of Boston another in 1892 (Loring, Katharine P., “A Review of Fifty-seven Years' Work,” Fifty-seventh and Final Annual Report of the Women's Education Association for the Year Ending January 17, 1929, p. 8).Google Scholar

31. The only general history of the ACA is that by Talbot, Marion and Rosenberry, Lois K. M., The History of the American Association of University Women. See also its own series of Publications, and Frankfort, Roberta, Collegiate Women, Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the-Century America (New York, 1977), ch. 6.Google Scholar

32. Quoted in Crow, Martha Foote, “The Status of Foreign Collegiate Education for Women,” p. 7. See also Brittain, Vera, The Women at Oxford, A Fragment of History (New York, 1960), ch. 4, “Unofficially Present (1880–1890)” and McWilliams-Tullberg, Rita, “Women and Degrees at Cambridge University, 1862–1897,” in Vicinus, Martha, ed., A Widening Sphere, Changing Roles of Victorian Women (Bloomington, Indiana, 1977), pp. 117–45.Google Scholar

33. Helmer, Bessie Bradwell to Mrs.Hearst, , May 1, 1894, Phoebe Apperson Hearst Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. I thank Gayle Gullett Escobar for bringing this collection to my attention. Helmer was known for her strong support for the ACA fellowships (Talbot, Marion, History of the Chicago ACA, pp. 3–4 and 5, but her papers have not been found.)Google Scholar

34. Maltby, Margaret, comp., History of the Fellowships, pp. 13–14.Google Scholar

35. Klein, Felix to “Hochgeehrte Frau Professor!, May 15, 1892, Christine Ladd-Franklin Papers, Special Collections, Butler Library, Columbia University. I thank Ian Dengler for help in transcribing this letter. See also “Ladd-Franklin” in NAW.Google Scholar

36. “Hyde” and “Maltby” in NAW; Maltby, Margaret, History of the Fellowships, pp. 14–16 (but error in year of Winston's degree; cf. AMS [3rd ed., 1921], p. 505); Maltby, Margaret to Hyde, Ida, September 21, 1929, Papers, Ida Hyde, American Association of University Women Archives, Washington, D.C.; Scott Barr, E. C., “Margaret Eliza Maltby,” American Journal of Physics, 28(1960): 474–5; Caroline Newson Beshers (daughter of Mary Winston Newson) to author, June 11, 1974; see also Maltby, Margaret E., “A Few Points of author, June 11, 1974; see also Maltby, Margaret E., “A Few Points of Comparison Between German and American Universities,” Publications of the ACA, series 2, no. 62(1896).Google Scholar

37. Hyde, Ida, “Before Women Were Human Beings, Adventures of an American Fellow in German Universities of the '90s,” AAUW Journal, 31(1938): 226–36; Stephens, Kate to Hyde, Ida, September 27, 1929, Collection, Kate Stephens, University of Kansas Archives, Lawrence; “She Opened German Universities to Women,” Kansas City Star (April 13, 1902), clipping in Ida Hyde Papers; comments by Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, session on “Pioneers in Science, 1880–1910,” Berkshire Conference on Women in History, Mount Holyoke College, August 25, 1978; for a slightly different interpretation, see Wittig, Gertraude, “Hyde's 1896 Doctorate: A Lesson from the History of Women in Science,” unpublished paper delivered at the National Women's Studies Association annual meeting, Bloomington, Indiana, May 1980 and her “The Admission of Women to German Universities,” presented at the Berkshire Conference on Women's History, Vassar College, June 1981.Google Scholar

38. Helmer, Bessie Bradwell to Mrs.Hearst, , September 20, 1894 and Talbot, Marion to Mrs.Hearst, Phoebe, November 3, 1894 both in Phoebe Apperson Hearst Papers. See also n. 33. For more on women's experiences at German universities in the 1890s, see Hamilton, Alice, “Edith and Alice Hamilton, Students in Germany,” Atlantic Monthly, 215(March 1965): 129–32 and the Ethel Puffer Howes Papers in the Morgan-Puffer Family Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, Massachusetts. An attempt by the ACA to prepare a full list of women with foreign (as well as American) doctorates apparently failed (Martha Foote Crow, [Request for Assistance], Publications of the ACA, series 2, no. 59(1896).Google Scholar

39. Gill, Laura D., “Report of the Committee upon the Establishment of a Council for Foreign University Work,” Publications of the ACA, series 2, no. 59–2, (1896); “Council to Accredit Women for Advanced Work in Foreign Universities,” Publications of the ACA, series 3, no. 1, (1898), 97–98 and no. 4 (1901), 82, 92–3; “Report of the Internal Committee of the Council to Accredit Women for Advanced Work in Foreign Universities,” ibid., no. 5, (1902), pp. 69–72; Woolley, Helen T., “Report of the Committee on Foreign Universities,” ibid., series 4, no. 1 (1911): 30–2 discusses eligibility of foreign degree recipients for ACA membership.Google Scholar

40. Maddison, Isabel, Handbook of British, Continental and Canadian Universities with Special Mention of the Courses Open to Women (New York); an endorsement appears in Publications of the ACA, series 3, no. 1 (1898): 102–3.Google Scholar

41. Little has been written on the entrance of German women into the universities. Good starting places are Evans, Richard J., the Feminist Movement in Germany, 1894–1933 (London and Beverly Hills, 1976), pp. 17–21, 72–3, 176–7 and 187; Bernstein, George and Bernstein, Lottelore, “Attitudes Toward Women's Education in Germany, 1870–1914,” International Journal of Women's Studies, 2(1979): 473–88; Dühring, E., Der Weg zur höheren Berufsbildung der Frauen (Leipzig, 1877); Kirchoff, Arthur, Die Akademische Frau, Gutachten heruorragender Universitätsprofessoren, frauenlehrer und schriftsteller uber die befähigung der frau zum wissenschaftlichen studium und berufe herausgegeben (Berlin, 1897); [French, Frances Graham], “The Status of Woman from the Educational and Industrial Standpoint,” in Report of the [U.S.] Commissioner of Education for 1897–98, vol. 1, pp. 631–72, esp. 637–44; and, for background, Lange, Helene, Lebenserinnerungen (Berlin, 1921), which ought to be translated into English. Alice Hamilton, for example, stayed with Dr. and Mrs. Edinger when in Germany in 1896. Their daughter Tilly, born a year later, earned a doctorate at Frankfurt University in 1921 and subsequently became a prominent German-American vertebrate paleontologist (Alice Hamilton to Tilly Edinger, May 2, 1964, Tilly Edinger Papers, Museum of Comparative Zoology Archives, Harvard University.)Google Scholar

42. Ladd-Franklin, Christine to Talbot, Marion, December 8. 1896, Marion Talbot Papers, Special Collections, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago.Google Scholar

43. James, William to Ladd-Franklin, Christine, March 3. 1892, Christine Ladd-Franklin Papers, Special Collections, Butler Library, Columbia University.Google Scholar

44. The full story is in Furumoto, Laurel, “Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930), Fourteenth President of the American Psychological Association,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 15(1979): 346–56, which uses Calkins correspondence still in private hands. See also “Calkins” in NAW; Kuklick, Bruce, The Rise of American Philosophy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1860–1930 (New Haven, 1977), appendix 4, “Women Philosophers at Harvard;” Hale, Matthew Jr., Human Science and Social Order: Hugo Munsterherg and the Origins of Applied Psychology (Philadelphia, 1980), pp. 63; Munsterberg, Margaret, Hugo Munsterberg, His Life and Work (New York, 1922), p. 76; Munsterberg, Hugo to Calkins, Miss, May 20, 1902, Hugo Munsterberg Collection, Department of Rare Books and Manuscripts, Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts.Google Scholar

Kate Morris had left Harvard in 1881 after her petition to its Corporation requesting she be admitted to candidacy for a doctorate was denied. (Thorp, Margaret Farrand (n. 11), p. 24).Google Scholar

45. Puffer: Royce, Josiah to Puffer, Miss, May 23. 1898, and “Report of the Committee on Honors and Higher Degrees of the Division of Philosophy in Harvard University.” Google Scholar

46. Unidentified clipping, also in Puffer, Ethel D. Faculty File, Smith College Archives.Google Scholar

47. “Radcliffe Day, Degrees Conferred on 100 Graduates,” Boston Evening Transcript (June 26. 1902), clipping in Morgan-Puffer Family Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College; Irwin, Agnes, “Report of the Dean [of the Radcliffe Graduate School],” in Annual Report of the President and Treasurer of Radcliffe College, 1901–1902 (Cambridge: [Radcliffe College] 1902), pp. 13 and 21–22; “Earned Doctorates—,” Eells, p. 660; there is as yet no history of the Radcliffe Graduate School, although one may be possible now that the college has hired an archivist. The volume by the Radcliffe College, Committee on Graduate Education for Women, Graduate Education for Women, The Radcliffe Ph.D. (Cambridge, 1956) is not historical.Google Scholar

48. Jacob, Kathryn, “How Johns Hopkins Protected Women From The Rougher Influences,”' Johns Hopkins Magazine, 27 (March 1976): 4–5, 7; Hawkins, Hugh, Pioneer, especially chapter 14 (“The Uninvited”); John C. French, A History of the University Founded by Johns Hopkins (Baltimore, 1946), p. 147; “Ladd-Franklin” in NAW. Gilman's, D. C. “Memoranda Submitted to the Trustees [on the Education of Women],” November 5, 1877, lists of “Applications Refused,” reports of action taken on applications accepted, and correspondence are in three folders on the “Admission of Women” in Special Collections and Manuscripts, Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar

49. “Bascom” in NAW; Williams, George D. to Bascom, Florence, April 16. 1891; quotation from Williams, G. H. to Orton, Edward Professor, January 5, 1893; Gilman, D. C. to Bascom, Miss, May 26, 1893; Griffin, Rebekah W. to “My dear Florence,” n.d. [spring 1893]; Gilman, D. C. to Bascom, Miss, July 5, 1893; numerous clippings from New York and Baltimore newspapers; all in Florence Bascom Papers, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. See also Bayley, W. S., “Contributions of Hopkins to Geology,” and Bascom, Florence, “Fifty Years of Progress in Petrography and Petrology,” both in Matthews, Edward Bennett, ed., Fifty Years' Progress in Geology, 1876–1926, Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology, No. 8 (1926). Both of Bascom's parents were suffragists: Bascom, Emma C., “Reports of Vice-Presidents,” Papers and Reports Read Before the Association for the Advancement of Women at its Annual Congress,… Buffalo, N.Y., October 1881 (Boston, 1882), pp. 17–20 and obituaries in Florence Bascom Papers; “Woman Suffrage, Meeting of the Wisconsin Advocates of the Movement Address by John Bascom, President of State University,” n.d., copy in Florence Bascom Papers. Although Walter Eells counted Constance Pessels, Ph.D. '94 as a woman, Hawkins cited evidence he was male (Hawkins, , Pioneer, p. 266 n. 21).Google Scholar

50. Ladd-Franklin, Christine to Talbot, Marion, December 8, 1896 (n. 42 above) discusses the imminent opening of Hopkins to women. Gilman, Daniel C., “The Future of American Colleges and Universities,” Atlantic Monthly, 78 (1896): 176; Henry A. Rowland to Editor of the Nation, September 27, 1896 and Gilman's request that he not publish it (October 2, 1896), in folder on “Admission of Women,” n. 48 above. Additional material on Ladd-Franklin's degree and Lovejoy's, A. O. criticisms are in the Johns Hopkins University Archives also in Milton Eisenhower Library, and in the Christine Ladd-Franklin Papers, Special Collections, Butler Library, Columbia University.Google Scholar

51. Ruckmick, Christian A. to Yerkes, R. M. Professor, March 14. 1927; Ruckmick, Christian A. to Lowell, Abbott L. President, June 4, 1927; and Ruckmick, Christian A. to Yerkes, R. M. Professor, June 25, 1927, Robert A. Yerkes Papers, Yale University Library, New Haven, Connecticut.Google Scholar

52. “Garrett” in NAW; Finch, Edith, Carey Thomas of Bryn Mawr (New York, 1947), pp. 197–202; Chesney, Alan M., The Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine: A Chronicle (2 vols.; Baltimore, 1943 and 1958); Flexner, Simon and Flexner, James Thomas, William Henry Welch and the Heroic Age of American Medicine (New York, 1941), pp. 215–230; Welch, William H. to Mall, F. P., November 7, 1891; Welch, William H. to Carey Thomas, M., February 16, 1893 and Welch, William H. to Cushing, Harvey, August 8, 1922 all in William H. Welch Papers, the Alan Mason Chesney Medical Archives of the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions. Another famous student Gertrude Stein, '01, never completed her degree.Google Scholar

53. Peterson, Reuben, “The Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,” in Shaw, Wilfred B., ed., The University of Michigan, An Encyclopedic Survey (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1951), v. 3, pp. 866–8.Google Scholar

53. Cheyney, Edward P., History of the University of Pennsylvania, 1740–1940 (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1940), pp. 303–9; Eells, , “Earned Doctorates…,” p. 647; n. 2 and 18 above; Miller, Karl G., “Daughters of [the University of] Pennsylvania,” General Magazine & Historical Chronicle University of Pennsylvania, 39(1937): 405–20.Google Scholar

55. Rossiter, Margaret W., “‘Women's Work’ in Science, 1880–1910,” Isis 71 (1980): 381–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar