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How Austerity Politics Led to Tuition Charges at the University of California and City University of New York

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2021

Jennifer M. Nations Open the ORCID record for Jennifer M. Nations [Opens in a new window]
Jennifer M. Nations*
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Corresponding author. Email: Jennifer@scholarsstrategynetwork.org
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Abstract

The size and cost of US public higher education, funded largely by government, grew continuously for nearly twenty-five years after World War II. In the late 1960s, as the nation's economic growth slowed, the question of who should pay for higher education came under fresh political scrutiny. Decades-old no-tuition policies at the University of California and The City University of New York (CUNY) became targets of neoconservative critiques of the proper role of government support for public services. In California, this was done as Governor Ronald Reagan promoted a partisan austerity to win favor with business and other conservative elites. He justified cuts to higher education financing as a rebuke of protesting students and inept administrators and, later, as financially necessary given voters’ reluctance to pay more taxes. In contrast, federal and New York State politicians forced austerity on city leaders to satisfy bond holders during New York City's severe fiscal crisis. Reformers argued that CUNY's no-tuition policy was emblematic of the city's overindulgence of its residents. No-tuition policies became impossible to defend in the context of the stalled economy and growing conservative movement, whose members embraced government austerity.

Keywords

modern conservatismhigher educationAmerican politicsausteritytuitionfiscal policy
Type
Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 61 , Issue 3 , August 2021 , pp. 273 - 296
Copyright
Copyright © 2021 History of Education Society

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13 An important exception is Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge.

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16 Elizabeth Tandy Shermer addresses this briefly. See Elizabeth Tandy Shermer, Sunbelt Capitalism: Phoenix and the Transformation of American Politics (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013).

17 Jon Shefner and Cory Blad, Why Austerity Persists (Medford, MA: Polity Press, 2020), 10. See also Mark Blyth, Austerity: the History of a Dangerous Idea (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013).

18 See, for example, Monica Prasad, Starving the Beast: Ronald Reagan and the Tax Cut Revolution (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2018); Shermer, Sunbelt Capitalism; and Paul Pierson, Dismantling the Welfare State (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994). These authors all show the ways that the implementation of conservative political ideologies succeed, although not always to the degree or in the form their supporters intend.

19 Alice O'Connor, “The Privatized City: The Manhattan Institute, the Urban Crisis, and the Conservative Counterrevolution in New York,” Journal of Urban History 34, no. 2 (Jan. 2008), 333–53; Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009); and Olmsted, Right Out of California, 171–172.

20 Thelin, A History of American Higher Education, 261; Isaac William Martin, The Permanent Tax Revolt: How the Property Tax Transformed American Politics (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008); and Shermer, Sunbelt Capitalism, 304–305.

21 Douglass, California Idea and American Higher Education, 281–282; Master Plan Survey Team, A Master Plan for Higher Education in California, 1960–1975 (Sacramento, CA: State Department of Education, 1960), https://www.ucop.edu/acadinit/mastplan/MasterPlan1960.pdf. The Master Plan and corresponding law, the Donahoe Higher Education Act, formalized the state's system of higher education into three hierarchical layers of public systems, including UC at the top, the California State College system in the middle, and the expansive California Community Colleges at the bottom. The UC and CSC no-tuition policies were not enacted as part of the law.

22 Seymour Martin Lipset, “University Student Politics,” in The Berkeley Student Revolt: Facts and Interpretations, ed. Seymour Martin Lipset and Sheldon S. Wolin (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1965), 1–9; Neil J. Smelser, Reflections on the University of California: From the Free Speech Movement to the Global University (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2010); Neil J. Smelser, “Growth, Structural Change, and Conflict In California Publc Higher Education, 1950–1970,” in Public Higher Education in California, ed. Neil J. Smelser and Gabriel Almond (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1974), 9–141; and Max Heirich, The Beginning. Berkeley, 1964 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970).

23 Field Research Corporation, “California Poll 7101” (Berkeley, CA: University of California, 1971), https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/8QG6YX.

24 Alex Sherriffs, “Education Advisor to Ronald Reagan and State University Administrator, 1969–1982, Transcript of an Oral History,” in The Governor's Office and Public Information, Education, and Planning, 1967–1974 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Library, 1981), 1–123, http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/collections/subjectarea/pol_gov/reagan.html; and Field Research Corporation, “California Poll 6701” (Berkeley, CA: University of California, 1967), https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/IFQGXE.

25 Gerard J. De Groot, “Ronald Reagan and Student Unrest in California, 1966–1970,” Pacific Historical Review 65, no. 1 (Feb. 1996), 107–29.

26 Ronald Reagan, “Taped Announcement on Candidacy for California Governor,” Jan. 4, 1966, American Rhetoric Online Speech Bank, https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreagancalgovcandidacy.htm.

27 Olmsted, Right Out of California, 236–238; and Miriam Pawel, The Browns of California: The Family Dynasty That Transformed a State and Shaped a Nation (New York: Bloomsbury, 2019).

28 The state cannot ask all agencies to reduce budgets by the same proportion across the board due to federal matching fund requirements and other legal agreements that make such a move impossible and illegal. Edwin W. Beach, “Some Technical and Political Aspects of State Budgeting, Transcript of an Oral History,” in California State Department of Finance and Governor Ronald Reagan (Berkeley, CA: University of California Library, 1984), https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf3199n5jn/dsc/.

29 California governors have significant budgetary powers. After consulting with the heads of state agencies, they propose the upcoming year's budget as the first step in negotiations over a state budget. The budget is then debated and amended by the legislature. After both houses reach budget agreements, the amended budget is then returned to the governor for approval. Line-item veto power gives California governors the ability to strip any legislative add-ins until the budget resembles its original forms. Legislative leaders must convince a supermajority of members to reject a line-item veto. For this reason, Reagan and his cabinet play a prominent role in budget cuts to the universities in this chapter. See Thad Kousser and Justin H. Phillips, The Power of American Governors: Winning on Budgets and Losing on Policy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

30 Arthur G. Coons, Crises in California Higher Education: Experience Under the Master Plan and Problems of Coordination, 1959–1968 (Los Angeles: Ward Ritchie Press, 1968).

31 Coons, Crises in California Higher Education, 116.

32 Los Angeles Times Staff, “Governor Signs Record Budget, Cuts $16 Million,” Los Angeles Times, June 30, 1968, A1; and Coons, Crises in California Higher Education, 126.

33 Los Angeles Times Staff, “Items Vetoed or Reduced by Governor,” Los Angeles Times, June 30, 1968, A20.

34 Los Angeles Times Staff, “Governor Signs Record Budget, Cuts $16 Million,” A1.

35 Staff Writer, “UC Regents Ask Legislature to Restore Reagan Budget Cuts,” Los Angeles Times, July 13, 1968, A1.

36 KTVU, “Governor Reagan on University of California Funding” (Cox Enterprises/KTVU, 1968), https://diva.sfsu.edu/collections/sfbatv/bundles/220764.

37 University of California Office of University Relations, “Hitch Describes Impact of Proposed 1968–69 Budget,” University Bulletin: A Weekly Bulletin for the Staff of the University of California 16, no. 22 (Feb. 13, 1968), 105–107, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106020265853&view=1up&seq=117&q1=Hitch%20describes%20impact.

38 William Trombley, “It's UC, State Colleges vs. Reagan on Budget,” Los Angeles Times, Feb. 12, 1968, A3.

39 Glen S. Dumke to Ronald Reagan, Dec. 12, 1966, in The Evolution of the California State University System, 1961–1982 (Berkeley, CA: Regents of the University of California, 1986), https://archive.org/details/evolutioncalistate00dumkrich/page/n91/mode/2up?q=reagan.

40 For a history of this movement and Reagan's role in it, see Olmsted, Right Out of California, 236–8. Olmsted notes that despite their small-government stance, California conservatives in this period supported government subsidies to agribusinesses and other private enterprises.

41 Los Angeles Times Staff, “Bond Votes Carry Clear Message,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 7, 1968, B6.

42 California Proposition 2, “Bonds to Provide State College” (State of California, 1964), https://repository.uchastings.edu/ca_ballot_props/660; California Proposition 2, “Bonds to Provide State College and University Facilities” (State of California, 1966), https://repository.uchastings.edu/ca_ballot_props/679.

43 California Proposition 3, “Bonds to Provide State College, University, and Urban School Facilities” (State of California, 1968), https://repository.uchastings.edu/ca_ballot_props/701.

44 William H. Pickens, Financing the Plan: California's Master Plan for Higher Education, 1960 to 1994, Report 95–1 (San Jose, CA: California Higher Education Policy Center, 1995), https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED399849.pdf.

45 Tom Goff, “State Surplus Set at $456.8 Million,” Los Angeles Times, Feb. 5, 1969, A1.

46 William Trombley, “Regents Agree to Trim Budget by $88 Million,” Los Angeles Times, Sept. 20, 1969, A1.

47 Jerry Gillam, “State Senate's Version of Record Budget OK'd,” Los Angeles Times, May 23, 1968, A29.

48 Los Angeles Times Staff, “Campus Demonstrators Face Legislative Wrath,” Los Angeles Times, Jan. 7, 1968, K1.

49 Los Angeles Times Editorial Board, “UC: The Overcrowded Campuses,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 25, 1969, A6; William Trombley, “Austere Regime Seen Continuing at UC, Colleges,” Los Angeles Times, Feb. 4, 1970, A1; and Los Angeles Times Staff, “The Cost of Higher Education,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 3, 1969, F6.

50 Los Angeles Times Staff, “The Cost of Higher Education,” F6.

51 Field Research Corporation, “California Poll 7101.”

52 Prasad, Starving the Beast, 216–217.

53 Alex C. Sherriffs, “Remarks Before Members of the Constitutional Revision Commission” (speech, San Francisco CA, March 1969), Appendix 1 in “Education Advisor to Ronald Reagan and State University Administrator, 1969–1982, Transcript of an Oral History,” in The Governor's Office and Public Information, Education, and Planning, 1967–1974 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Library, 1981), https://archive.org/details/govofficepub00chalrich/page/n181/mode/2up; UC University Relations, “Board Holds Further Tuition Discussion,” University Bulletin: A Weekly Bulletin for the Staff of the University of California 18, no.16 (Dec. 8, 1969), 76, 79, 81, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31378008229695&view=1up&seq=96&q1=board%20holds%20further%20tuition; and Los Angeles Times Staff, “Tuition OK for State Colleges,” Los Angeles Times, March 29, 1970, F5.

54 UC University Relations, “Board Holds Further Tuition Discussion,” 49.

55 Ronald Reagan, “Address by Governor Ronald Reagan on the Installation of President Robert Hill, Chico State College,” May 20, 1967, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library & Museum, transcript.

56 Reagan was no champion of poor students: he made moves as governor and president to cut aid to financially needy (sometimes needy and racial/ethnic minority) students. See Charles B. Saunders, “Sorry, This Commitment May Be Cancelled—Higher Education and Ronald Reagan,” Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 14, no. 1 (Jan./Feb. 1982), 7–9; John Dreyfuss, “State Colleges to Lose Faculty Research Funds: Reagan Eliminates $5 Million from Budget, Cuts Some from Minority Program,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 29, 1969, A1; and Robert Fairbanks, “Bills to Boost Faculty Pay Vetoed by Reagan; Plan to Help Poor Students Through College Also Killed,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 13, 1971, A1.

57 Ronald Reagan, “The ‘Equal Education Plan’ for Higher Education in California, Printed in Full,” University Bulletin: A Weekly Bulletin for the Staff of the University of California, July 31, 1967, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106020265853&view=1up&seq=35.

58 Reagan, “The ‘Equal Education Plan,’” 22–23.

59 Coons, Crises in California Higher Education, 135.

60 California Coordinating Council for Higher Education, “Increasing Opportunities in Higher Education for Disadvantaged Students” (Sacramento, CA: [Office of State Publishing], 1966); and California Coordinating Council for Higher Education, “Annual Report of the Director, 1969” (Sacramento, CA: Office of State Publishing, 1970).

61 Tom Goff, “Unruh Snaps Back at Hecklers on Campus,” Los Angeles Times, April 25, 1970, 24; and Joint Committee on Higher Education, “The Challenge of Achievement: A Report on Public and Private Higher Education in California” (Sacramento, CA; Office of State Publishing, 1969), https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED027879.pdf.

62 Albert S. Rodda, “Tuition: Considerations of Interest to Democratic Legislators,” The Back Bench, March 1, 1970, http://thebackbench.blogspot.com/2007/08/tuition-at-university-of-california.html.

63 Frederick Dutton, “Youth a Basic Resource,” Los Angeles Times, Feb. 14, 1970, A4.

64 UC University Relations, “Board Holds Further Tuition Discussion,” University Bulletin: A Weekly Bulletin for the Staff of the University of California 18, no.16 (Dec. 8, 1969), 75, 81, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31378008229695&view=1up&seq=67.

65 William Trombley, “Student Leaders Challenge UC Fee Boost Plan,” Los Angeles Times, Jan. 19, 1968, A1.

66 UC University Relations, “Board Holds Further Tuition Discussion,” 76; and UC University Relations, “Regents Discuss Issues and Alternatives Relating to Tuition at the University,” University Bulletin: A Weekly Bulletin for the Staff of the University of California 18, no.11 (Oct. 27, 1969), 47, 52.

67 UC University Relations, “Proposals for Increased Student Fees Presented to the Regents,” University Bulletin: A Weekly Bulletin for the Staff of the University of California 18, no. 20 (Jan. 26, 1970), 102, 104, 106, 108, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31378008229695&view=1up&seq=121.

68 Rodda, “Tuition: Considerations of Interest to Democratic Legislators”; and Los Angeles Times Staff, “Tuition OK for State Colleges,” F5.

69 William Trombley, “1971: Year Finances Shook State Colleges: Governor's Veto of Building Funds, Pay Hikes Marred Peace 1971,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 26, 1971, A3; and Legislative Analysts Office, Analysis of the Budget Bill, Fiscal Year July 1, 1971 to June 30, 1972 (Sacramento, CA: Office of State Publishing, 1971), https://lao.ca.gov/analysis/1971/01_transmittal_1971.pdf

70 Board of Higher Education, A Long-Range Plan for the City University of New York, 1961–1975 (New York: Board of Higher Education, 1962).

71 Act to Amend the Education Law, April 11, 1961, ch. 388 §237, amended, (1961), https://nysl.ptfs.com/data/Library1/pdf/NY200060392-L-1961-CH-0388.pdf; New York Times Staff, “City Tuition Plot Laid to Governor,” New York Times, Feb. 27, 1961, 18; Leonard Buder, “City University Gets Fast Start: Officials Cite Plans for Institution Approved by Governor Tuesday,” New York Times, April 13, 1961, 37; and Board of Higher Education, A Long-Range Plan, 53.

72 The Board of Higher Education, A Long-Range Plan, 80; and Citizens’ Commission on the Future of CUNY, Report of the Citizens’ Commission on the Future of the City University of New York (New York: CUNY Digital History Archive, 1971), https://cdha.cuny.edu/items/show/15.

73 Albert Bowker, interview by Julius C. C. Edelstein, Laguardia Community College, NY, May 15–17, 1985, https://cdha.cuny.edu/items/show/18; Leonard Buder, “Tuition Fee Plan Will Be Pressed: Chancellor to Present the Proposal for City Colleges to Higher Education Board,” New York Times, Nov. 12, 1965, 49; New York Times Editorial Board, “The Bowker Proposal,” New York Times, Nov. 13, 1965, 28; Clayton Knowles, “Threat to Rockefeller: City University Problem Likely to Cost Governor Voters, Here or Upstate,” New York Times, May 16, 1966, 40; and Anthony G. Picciano and Chet Jordan, CUNY's First Fifty Years: Triumphs and Ordeals of a People's University (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2017).

74 Moody's analysts provided this report as part of testimony at a congressional hearing. Financing Municipal Facilities 1968: Hearings on H.R. 15991, Day 1, Before the Subcommittee on Economic Progress of the Joint Economic Committee, 90th Cong.2nd sess. (1968), (Appendix D to Written Statement of Robert C. Riehle, Vice President of Moody's Investors Service, Inc.)

75 Wall Street Journal Staff, “New York City Cancels $96,255,000 Bond Sale Due to Market Status: Smaller Issue to Be Sold Later,” Wall Street Journal, May 23, 1967, 14.

76 Jaqueline Wexler, “An Open Door to City U,” New York Times, March 8, 1972, 43.

77 Karabel, Jerome, “The Politics of Structural Change in American Higher Education: The Case of Open Admissions at the City University of New York,” in The Compleat University: Break from Tradition in Three Countries, ed. Hermanns, Harry, Teichler, Ulrich, and Wasser, Henry (Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing, 1983), 21–58Google Scholar.

78 Shefter, Martin, Political Crisis/Fiscal Crisis: The Collapse and Revival of New York City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79 Exchange between Senator Halperin and CUNY Chancellor Kibbee in Hearing to Discuss Higher Education in New York State, Day 1, Before Joint Legislative Committee on Higher Education, 180th Legislature, March 15, 1973, 79–80, New York State Library, Albany, NY; Fred M. Hechinger, “Universities: Money Pinch Is Really Starting to Hurt,” New York Times, April 18, 1971, E9; William K. Tabb, The Long Default: New York City and the Urban Fiscal Crisis (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1982); and Bruno Palmer-Poroner, letter to the editor, New York Times, Sept. 23, 1975, 36.

80 R. E. Marshak, “What Tuition at CUNY Would Do,” New York Times, March 21, 1973, 44.

81 Machlis, Peter David, “The Distributional Effects of Public Higher Education in New York City,” Public Finance Quarterly 1, no. 1 (March 1973), 35–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

82 Karabel, “The Politics of Structural Change in American Higher Education”; Gross, Theodore L., Academic Turmoil: The Reality and Promise of Open Education (New York: Anchor Press, 1980)Google Scholar.

83 New York Times Staff, “Student Meeting at Queens Rejects Open Enrollment,” New York Times, March 15, 1970, 88.

84 Henry Arce, interview by Douglas Medina, New York, NY, Feb. 26, 2014, https://cdha.cuny.edu/items/show/6842.

85 Picciano and Jordan, CUNY's First Fifty Years, 78; and Phillip R. Rever, Open Admissions and Equal Access (Iowa City, Iowa: American College Testing Program, 1971).

86 Maurice Carroll, “Mayor Bids State Aid CUNY More: Asks End to 50–50 Formula, Citing City Fiscal Crisis,” New York Times, Dec. 6, 1970, 41.

87 Leonard Buder, “Budget Cuts Will Hit Hard at City U,” New York Times, April 20, 1971, 26.

88 Phillips-Fein, Fear City.

89 Shefter, Political Crisis/Fiscal Crisis, 112.

90 Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands, 221–224, 236–242.

91 New York Times Staff, “Nixon and Mayors: To Be a Big City Mayor These Days Is to Be a Loser,” New York Times, March 28, 1971, E2; Tabb, The Long Default, 2; Martin Tolchin, “Suit On Welfare Filed by Lindsay: Mayor Goes to Foley Sq. to Begin City Action Aimed at Ending Mandated Costs,” New York Times, Feb. 25, 1971, 1; and John W. Finney, “Nixon and Reagan Ask War on Crime: G.O.P. Gets Similar Views—Lindsay Stand Differs,” New York Times, August 1, 1968, 1.

92 Robert F. Pecorella, “Regional Political Conflict in New York State,” in Governing New York State, 6th ed., ed. Robert F. Pecorella and Jeffrey M. Stonecash (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2012), 3–24.

93 Paula-Ray Mandl, letter to the editor, “Tuition at C.U.N.Y.,” New York Times, Jan. 28, 1972, 44; Alan Shark and Susan Chadick, letter to the editor, “The C.U.N.Y. Tuition Battle: Should the Doors Stay Wide Open,” New York Times, March 29, 1973, 46; Hearing to Discuss Higher Education in New York State, the Recommendations of the Keppel Task Force Commission Report, 160. Some SUNY students used the imbalance between CUNY and SUNY's tuition policies as leverage to demand the cancelation of student tuition at SUNY.

94 Judith S. Glazer, “Nelson Rockefeller and the Politics of Higher Education in New York State” (Albany, NY, May 1989), ERIC ED 319271, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED319271.

95 Richard Reeves, “A Lesson on Just Where the Political Power Lies: City-State,” New York Times, April 4, 1971, E2; and Francis X. Clines, “State Aid Needed to Avert a Crisis, Big 6 Mayors Say,” New York Times, Feb. 18, 1971, 1.

96 Frank Lynn, “Governor Warns Mayor on Budget,” New York Times, June 30, 1971, 1; and William Farrell, “Big 6 Mayors Plead for Aid in Annual Albany Visit,” New York Times, Feb. 10, 1972, 47.

97 Richard Reeves, “Tax Plan Called a Threat to City: Citizens Budget Commission Assails Lindsay Proposal,” New York Times, May 26, 1971, 1.

98 New York Times Staff, “Carey Will Work for Free Tuition,” New York Times, July 28, 1974, 40.

99 Phillips-Fein, Fear City, 45.

100 Frank Lynn, “Survey Finds New Yorkers Optimistic on City's Future,” New York Times, Jan. 14, 1974, 1, 18.

101 Frank Lynn, “More in City Are Turning to the Right,” New York Times, Jan. 15, 1974, 1, 26.

102 Shefter, Political Crisis/Fiscal Crisis, 106.

103 Phillips-Fein, Fear City, 81–82.

104 Shefter, Political Crisis/Fiscal Crisis, 154; and O'Connor, “The Privatized City,” 345.

105 Phillips-Fein, Fear City, 162–163.

106 O'Connor, “The Privatized City,” 347.

107 Iver Peterson, “Carey Easing Opposition to Tuition Fees at City U,” New York Times, Dec. 20, 1975, 32.

108 Rita E. Hauser, “Rethinking Open Admissions,” New York Times, June 23, 1975, 27.

109 Shefter, Political Crisis/Fiscal Crisis, 114, Table 5.1.

110 New York Times Staff, “A Plan for CUNY,” New York Times, Oct. 20, 1975, 32; and William John Hanna, letter to the editor, New York Times, Sept. 23, 1975, 36.

111 Franklin H. Williams, letter to the editor, “To Study at CUNY,” New York Times, July 8, 1975, 25; and Michael Harrington, editorial, “Keep Open Admissions Open,” New York Times, Nov. 2, 1975, 261.

112 New York Times Staff, “Councilmen Urge City U. Economies,” New York Times, Jan. 26, 1976, 19.

113 Steven R. Weisman, “Governor Is Considering a Session on Fiscal Panel,” New York Times, Aug. 30, 1975, 47.

114 Phillips-Fein, Fear City, 153.

115 Phillips-Fein, Fear City, 253.

116 Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, Higher Education: Who Pays? Who Benefits? Who Should Pay? (Berkeley, CA: McGraw-Hill, 1973).

117 Prasad, Starving the Beast; and Martin, Permanent Tax Revolt, 129–130.

118 “Republican Party Platform of 1968,” Aug., 5, 1968, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/republican-party-platform-1968; and Critchlow, Conservative Ascendancy, 146.

119 O'Connor, Alice, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.