Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T04:31:26.755Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization of Prion-Contaminated Medical Instruments

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2015

William A. Rutala  and
David J. Weber
William A. Rutala*
Affiliation:
Hospital Epidemiology, University of North Carolina Health Care, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
David J. Weber
Affiliation:
Hospital Epidemiology, University of North Carolina Health Care, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
*
Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7030, (brutala@unch.unc.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Shea Guideline
Information
Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology , Volume 31 , Issue 2 , February 2010 , pp. 107 - 117
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Surveillance for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease—United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1996;45:665–668.Google Scholar
2.Johnson, RT, Gibbs, CJ Jr.Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and related transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1994–2004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.Collins, SJ, Lawson, VA, Masters, CL. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Lancet 2004;363:51–61.Google Scholar
4.Belay, ED, Sejvar, JJ, Shieh, W-J, et, al. Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease death, United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:1351–1354.Google Scholar
5.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Probable variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in a U.S. resident—Florida, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:927–929.Google Scholar
6.National Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Surveillance Unit. Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Diseases Current Data, July 2009. Edinburgh, Scotland: University of Edinburgh; 2009.Google Scholar
7.Belay, ED, Maddox, RA, Williams, ES, Miller, MW, Gambetti, P, Schonberger, LB. Chronic wasting disease and potential transmission to humans. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:977–984.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Kong, Q, Huang, S, Zou, W, et, al. Chronic wasting disease of elk: trans-missibility to humans examined by transgenic mouse models. J Neurosa 2005;25:7944–7949.Google ScholarPubMed
9.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Fatal degenerative neurologic illnesses in men who participated in wild game feasts— Wisconsin, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:125–127.Google Scholar
10.Mawhinney, S, Pape, WJ, Forster, JE, Anderson, CA, Bosque, P, Miller, MW. Human prion disease and relative risk associated with chronic wasting disease. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:1527–1535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Brown, P, Brandel, J-P, Preese, M, Sato, T. Iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: the waning of an era. Neurology 2006;67:389–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12.World Health Organization (WHO). WHO infection control guidelines for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2000. Available at: http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/bse/whocdscsraph2003.pdf. Accessed January 3, 2010.Google Scholar
13.Brown, P, Preece, M, Brandel, JP, et al.Iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease at the millennium. Neurology 2000;55:1075–1081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Brown, P. Environmental causes of human spongiform encephalopathy. In: Baker, H, Ridley, RM, eds. Methods in Molecular Medicine: Prion Diseases. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 1996:139–154.Google Scholar
15.Brown, P, Gibbs, CJ, Rodgers-Johnson, P, et al.Human spongiform encephalopathy: the National Institutes of Health series of 300 cases of experimentally transmitted disease. Ann Neurol 1994;35:513–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Rutala, WA, Weber, DJ. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: recommendations for disinfection and sterilization. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:1348–1356.Google ScholarPubMed
17.McDonnell, G. Prion disease transmission: Can we apply standard precautions to prevent or reduce risks? J Perioper Pract 2008;18:298–304.Google ScholarPubMed
18.Tamai, Y, Kojima, H, Kitajima, R, et al.Demonstration of the transmissible agent in tissue from a pregnant woman with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. N Engl J Med 1992;327:649.Google ScholarPubMed
19.Zanusso, G, Ferrari, S, Cardone, F, et al.Detection of pathologic prion protein in the olfactory epithelium in sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. N Engl J Med 2003;348:711–719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Geertsma, RE, van Asten, JAAM. Sterilization of prions: requirements, complications, implications. Zentralbl Steril 1995;3:385–394.Google Scholar
21.Bernoulli, C, Siegfried, J, Baumgartner, G, et al.Danger of accidental person-to-person transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease by surgery. Lancet 1977;1(8009):478–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22.Nevin, S, McMenemey, WH, Behrman, S, Jones, DP. Subacute spongiform encephalopathy—a subacute form of encephalopathy attributable to vascular dysfunction (spongiform cerebral atrophy). Brain 1960;83:519–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Foncin, J-F, Gaches, J, Cathala, F, Sherif, E, LeBeau, J. Transmission iatrogene interhumaine possible de maladie de Creutzfeldt-Jakob avec atteinte des grains du cervelet. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1980;136:280.Google Scholar
24.Barash, JA, Johnson, BT, Gregorio, DI. Is surgery a risk factor for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease? Outcome variations by control choice and exposure assessments. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29:212–218.Google Scholar
25.Hamaguchi, T, Noguchi-Shinohara, M, Nakamura, Y, et al.Ophthalmic surgery in prion diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:162–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Chamberland, ME. Emerging infectious agents: do they pose a risk to the safety of transfused blood and blood products? Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:797–805.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27.Fichet, G, Comoy, C, Duval, C, et al.Novel methods for disinfection of prion-contaminated medical devices. Lancet 2004;364:521–526.Google Scholar
28.Fichet, G, Comoy, E, Dehen, C, et al.Investigations of a prion infectivity assay to evaluate methods of decontamination. J Microbiol Methods 2007;70:511–518.Google Scholar
29.Yan, ZX, Stitz, L, Heeg, P, Roth, K, Mauz P-S. Low-temperature inacti-vation of prion-protein on surgical steel surfaces with hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization. Zentralbl Steril 2008;16:26–34.Google Scholar
30.Jackson, GS, McKintosh, E, Flechsig, E, et al.An enzyme-detergent method for effective prion decontamination of surgical steel. J Gen Virol 2005;86:869–878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Taylor, DM. Inactivation of transmissible degenerative encephalopathy agents: a review. Vet J 2000;159:10–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Rogez-Kreuz, C, Yousfi, R, Soufflet, C, et al.Inactivation of animal and human prions by hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2009;30:769–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Yan, Z, Stitz, L, Heeg, P, Pfaff, E, Roth, K. Infectivity of prion protein bound to stainless steel wires: a model for testing decontamination procedures for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004;25:280–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Solassol, J, Arlotto, M, Lehmann, S. Detection of prion after decontamination procedures: comparative study of standard Western blot, filter retention, and scrapie-cell assay. J Hosp Infect 2004;57:156–161.Google Scholar
35.Rutala, WA, Weber, DJ. Management of equipment contaminated with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. In: Rutala, WA, ed. Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practices in Healthcare Facilities. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology; 2001:167–172.Google Scholar
36.Fichet, G, Antloga, K, Comoy, E, Deslys, JP, McDonnell, G. Prion inactivation using a new gaseous hydrogen peroxide sterilization process. J Hosp Infect 2007;67:278–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Peretz, D, Supattapone, S, Giles, K, et al.Inactivation of prions by acidic sodium dodecyl sulfate. J Virol 2006;80:322–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.Dickinson, AG, Taylor, DM. Resistance of scrapie agent to decontamination. N Engl J Med 1978;299:1413–1414.Google ScholarPubMed
39.Hartley, EG. Action of disinfectants on experimental mouse scrapie. Nature 1967;213:1135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Walker, JT, Dickinson, J, Sutton, JM, Marsh, PD, Raven, NDH. Implications for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in dentistry: a review of current knowledge. J Dent Res 2008;87:511–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41.Taylor, DM, Fernie, K, McConnell, I. Inactivation of the 22A strain of scrapie agent by autoclaving in sodium hydroxide. Vet Microbiol 1997;58:87–91.Google Scholar
42.Brown, P, Rohwer, RG, Green, EM, Gajdusek, DC. Effect of chemicals, heat, and histopathologic processing on high-infectivity hamster-adapted scrapie virus. J Infect Dis 1982;145:683–687.Google Scholar
43.Kimberlin, RH, Walker, CA, Millson, GC, et al.Disinfection studies with two strains of mouse-passaged scrapie agent: guidelines for Creutzfeldt-Jakob and related agents. J Neurol Sci 1983;59:355–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44.Taylor, DM, Fraser, H, McConnell, I, et al.Decontamination studies with the agents of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and scrapie. Arch Virol 1994;139:313–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Vadrot, C, Darbord, J-C. Quantitative evaluation of prion inactivation comparing steam sterilization and chemical sterilants: proposed method for test standardization. J Hosp Infect 2006;64:143–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46.Baxter, HC, Campbell, GA, Whittaker, AG, et al.Elimination of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy infectivity and decontamination of surgical instruments by using radio-frequency gas-plasma treatment. J Gen Virol 2005;86:2393–2399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Ernst, DR, Race, RE. Comparative analysis of scrapie agent inactivation methods. J Virol Methods 1993;41:193–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Sutton, JM, Dickinson, J, Walker, JT, Raven, NDH. Methods to minimize the risks of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease transmission by surgical procedures: where to set the standard? Clin Infect Dis 2006;43:757–764.Google Scholar
49.Zobeley, E, Flechsig, E, Cozzio, A, Enari, M, Weissmann, C. Infectivity of scrapie prions bound to a stainless steel surface. Mol Med 1999;5:240–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50.Taylor, DM, Diprose, MF. The response of the 22A strain of scrapie agent to microwave irradiation compared to boiling. Neuropathol Appi Neu-robiol 1996;22:256–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Taylor, DM, McConnell, I. Autoclaving does not decontaminate formol-fixed scrapie tissues. Lancet 1988;1(8600):1463–1464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52.Taylor, DM. Inactivation of prions by physical and chemical means. J Hosp Infect 1999;43 (Suppl):S69–S76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53.Rutala, WA; 1994, 1995, and 1996 APIC Guidelines Committee. APIC guideline for selection and use of disinfectants. Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology. Am J Infect Control 1996;24:313–342.Google Scholar
54.Rutala, WA, Weber, DJ. FDA labeling requirements for disinfection of endoscopes: a counterpoint. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:231–235.Google Scholar
55.Merritt, K, Hitchins, VM, Brown, SA. Safety and cleaning of medical materials and devices. J Biomed Mater Res 2000;53:131–136.3.0.CO;2-I>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Alfa, MJ, Jackson, M. A new hydrogen peroxide-based medical-device detergent with germicidal properties: comparison with enzymatic cleaners. Am J infect Control 2001;29:168–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.Jacobs, P. Cleaning: principles, methods and benefits. In: Rutala, WA, ed. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Antisepsis in Healthcare. Champlain, NY: Polyscience Publications; 1998:165–181.Google Scholar
58.Stephenson, J. Halting the spread of human prion disease—exceptional measures for an exceptional problem. J Hosp Infect 2007;65:14–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Lipscomb, IP, Pinchin, H, Collin, R, Kevil, CW. Effect of drying time, ambient temperature and pre-soaks on prion-infected tissue contamination levels on surgical stainless steel: concerns over prolonged transportation of instruments from theatre to central sterile service departments. Hosp Infect 2007;65:72–77.Google Scholar
60.Baier, M, Schwarz, A, Mielke, M. Activity of an alkaline ‘cleaner’ in the inactivation of the scrapie agent. J Hosp Infect 2004;57:80–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Yoshioka, M, Murayama, Y, Miwa, T, et al.Assessment of prion inactivation by combined use of Bacillus-derived protease and SDS. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2007;71:2565–2568.Google Scholar
62.Lawson, VA, Stewart, JD, Masters, CL. Enzymatic detergent treatment protocol that reduces protease-resistant prion load and infectivity from surgical-steel monofilaments contaminated with a human-derived prion strain. J Gen Virol 2007;88:2905–2914.Google Scholar
63.United Kingdom Department of Health. New technologies working group report on prion inactivating agents. London, UK: Department of Health; 2008:1–30.Google Scholar
64.Fichet, G, Harrison, J, McDonnell, G. Reduction of risk of prion transmission on surgical devices with effective cleaning processes. Zentralbl Steril 2007;15:418–437.Google Scholar
65.McLeod, AH, Murdoch, H, Dickinson, J, et al.Proteolytic inactivation of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy agent. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004;317:1165–1170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66.McDonnell, G, Fichet, G, Kaiser, H, et al.Cleaning investigations to reduce the risk of prion contamination on manufacturing surfaces and materials. Eur J Parenter Pharm Sci 2005;10:67–72.Google Scholar
67.Dickinson, J, Murdoch, H, Dennis, MJ, et al.Decontamination of prion protein (BSE301V) using a genetically engineered protease. J Hosp Infect 2009;72:65–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68.Rohwer, RG. Virus like sensitivity of the scrapie agent to heat inactivation. Science 1984;223:600–602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69.Fernie, K, Steele, PJ, Taylor, DM, Somerville, RA. Comparative studies on the thermostability of five strains of transmissible-spongiform-en-cephalopathy agent. Biotechnol Appi Biochem 2007;47:175–183.Google Scholar
70.Murdoch, H, Taylor, D, Dickinson, J, et al.Surface decontamination of surgical instruments: an ongoing dilemma. J Hosp Infect 2006;63:432–438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71.Sattar, SA, Springthorpe, VS. New methods for efficacy testing of disinfectants and antiseptics. In: Rutala, WA, ed. Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practices in Healthcare Facilities. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology; 2001:174–186.Google Scholar
72.McDonnell, G, Amato, R, Malchesky, PS, Muzic, DS, Marchant, RE. Use of Dacron as an alternative for evaluating oxidizing sterilants in the AOAC sporicidal tests. J AOAC Int 2000;83:269–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
73.Ascenzi, JM, Ezzell, RJ, Wendt, TM. A more accurate method for measurement of tuberculocidal activity of disinfectants. Appi Environ Microbiol 1987;53:2189–2192.Google Scholar
74.Rutala, WA, Cole, EC. Ineffectiveness of hospital disinfectants against bacteria: a collaborative study. Infect Control 1987;8:501–506.Google Scholar
75.Cole, EC, Rutala, WA, Alfano, EM. Comparison of stainless steel peni-cylinders used in disinfectant testing. J Assoc Off Anal Chem 1988;71:288–289.Google Scholar
76.Cole, EC, Rutala, WA, Nessen, L, Wannamaker, NS, Weber, DJ. Effect of methodology, dilution, and exposure time on the tuberculocidal activity of glutaraldehyde-based disinfectants. Appi Environ Microbiol 1990;56:1813–1817.Google Scholar
77.Steelman, VM. Activity of sterilization processes and disinfectants against prions (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agent). In: Rutala, WA, ed. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Antisepsis in Healthcare. Champlain, NY: Polyscience Publications; 1998:255–271.Google Scholar
78.Flechsig, E, Hegyi, I, Enari, M, Schwarz, P, Collinge, J, Weissmann, C. Transmission of scrapie by steel-surface-bound prions. Mol Med 2001;7:679–684.Google Scholar
79.Lemmer, K, Mielke, M, Pauli, G, Beekes, M. Decontamination of surgical instruments from prion proteins: in vitro studies on the detachment, destabilization and degradation of PrPsc bound to steel surfaces. J Gen Virol 2004;85:3805–3816.Google Scholar
80.Langeveld, JPM, Wang, JJ, Van de Wiel, DFM, Shih, GC, et al.Enzymatic degradation of prion protein in brain stem from infected cattle and sheep. J Infect Dis 2003;188:1782–1789.Google Scholar
81.Race, RE, Raymond, GJ. Inactivation of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (prion) agents by Environ LpH. J Virol 2004;78:2164–2165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82.Riemer, C, Bamme, T, Mok, SWF, Baier, M. 3-methyl-4-chIorophenol for prion decontamination of medical devices. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27:778–780.Google Scholar
83.Brown, P, Rohwer, RG, Gajdusek, DC. Newer data on the inactivation of scrapie virus or Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease virus in brain tissue. J Infect Dis 1986;153:1145–1148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84.Brown, P, Gibbs, CJ Jr, Amyx, HL, et al.Chemical disinfection of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease virus. N Engl J Med 1982;306:1279–1282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85.Solassol, J, Pastore, M, Crozet, C, Perrier, V, Lehmann, S. A novel copper-hydrogen peroxide formulation for prion decontamination. J Infect Dis 2006;194:865–869.Google Scholar
86.Manuelidis, L. Decontamination of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and other transmissible agents. J Neurovirol 1997;3:62–65.Google Scholar
87.Tateishi, J, Tashima, T, Kitamoto, T. Practical methods for chemical inactivation of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease pathogen. Microbiol Immunol 1991;35:163–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88.Taylor, DM. Resistance of the ME7 scrapie agent to peracetic acid. Vet Microbiol 1991;27:19–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89.Taguchi, F, Tamai, Y, Uchida, A, et al.Proposal for a procedure for complete inactivation of the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agent. Arch Virol 1991;119:297–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90.Brown, SA, Merritt, K. Use of containment pans and lids for autoclaving caustic solutions. Am J Infect Control 2003;31:257–260.Google Scholar
91.Rabano, A, de Pedro-Cuesta, J, Molbak, K, et al.Tissue classification for the epidemiological assessment of surgical transmission of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: a proposal on hypothetical risk levels. BMC Public Health 2005;5:9.Google Scholar
92.Favero, MS. Current issues in hospital hygiene and sterilization technology. J Infect Control (Asia Pacific Ed.) 1998;1:8–10.Google Scholar
93.Favero, MS, Bond, WW. Chemical disinfection of medical and surgical materials. In: Block, SS, ed. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001:881–917.Google Scholar
94.Committee on Health Care Issues, American Neurological Association. Precautions in handling tissues, fluids, and other contaminated materials from patients with documented or suspected Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Ann Neurol 1986;19:75–77.Google Scholar
95.Association of perioperative Registered Nurses (AORN). Recommended practices for cleaning and caring for surgical instruments and powered equipment. In: AORN, ed. Standards, Recommended Practices, and Guidelines. Denver: AORN; 2006:555–563.Google Scholar
96.Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI). Comprehensive guide to steam sterilization and sterility assurance in health care facilities. Arlington, VA: AAMI; 2006:ANSI/AAMI ST79.Google Scholar
97.Kampf, G, Blob, R, Martiny, H. Surface fixation of dried blood by glu-taraldehyde and peracetic acid. J Hosp Infect 2004;57:139–143.Google Scholar
98.Brown, P, Liberski, PP, Wolff, A, et al.Resistance of scrapie infectivity to steam autoclaving after formaldehyde fixation and limited survival after ashing at 360°C: practical and theoretical implications. J Infect Dis 1990;161:467–472.Google Scholar
99.Brown, P, Wolff, A, Gajdusek, DC. A simple and effective method for inactivating virus infectivity in formalin-fixed tissue samples from patients with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Neurology 1990;40:887–890.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100.CLSI. Protection of laboratory workers from occupationally acquired infections; approved guideline—third edition. CLSI document. Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2005:M29–A3.Google Scholar
101.Rutala, WA, Weber, DJ; Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for disinfection and sterilization in healthcare facilities, 2008. Atlanta, GA: CDC. Published November 2008. http://cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/guidelines/Disinfection_Nov_2008.pdf. Accessed January 3, 2010.Google Scholar
102.Rutala, WA, Weber, DJ. How to assess disease transmission when there is a failure to follow recommended disinfection and sterilization principles. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:519–524.Google Scholar
103.Bourvis, N, Boelle, P-Y, Cesbron, J-Y, Valieron, A-J. Risk assessment of transmission of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in endodontic practice in absence of adequate prion inactivation. PLoS One 2007;2(12):el330.Google Scholar
104.Stricof, RL, Lillquist, PP, Thomas, N, Belay, ED, Schonberger, LB, Morse, DL. An investigation of potential neurosurgical transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: challenges and lessons learned. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27:302–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105.Peden, AH, Head, MW, Ritchie, DL, Bell, JE, Ironside, JW. Preclinical vCJD after blood transfusion in a PRNP codon 129 heterozygous patient. Lancet 2004;364:527–529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106.Llewelyn, CA, Hewitt, PE, Knight, RSG, et al.Possible transmission of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease by blood transfusion. Lancet 2004;363:417–421.Google Scholar
107.Wroe, SJ, Pal, S, Siddique, D, et al.Clinical presentation and pre-mortem diagnosis of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease associated with blood transfusion: a case report. Lancet 2006;368:2061–2067.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
108.Fourth case of transfusion-associated vCJD infection in the United Kingdom. Euro Surveill 2007;12(1):E070118.4.Google Scholar
109.Azarpazhooh, A, Filiery, ED. Prion disease: the implications for dentistry. J Endod 2008;34:1158–1166.Google Scholar
110.Tulio, A, Buckley, R, Painter, M. CJD and the eye. Eye (Lond) 2000;14:259–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111.Kirkpatrick, WNA, Waterhouse, N. Pharyngoplasty and the risk of variant CJD transmission. Br J Plast Surg 2001;54:552–561.Google Scholar
112.Maheshwar, A, De, M, Browning, ST. Reusable versus disposable instruments in tonsillectomy: a comparative study of outcomes. Int J Clin Pract 2003;57:579–583.Google Scholar
113.Weber, DJ, Rutala, WA. Managing the risk of nosocomial transmission of prion diseases. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2002;15:421–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
114.Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens; final rule. Fed Regist 1991;56:64003–64182.Google Scholar
115.Tyler, KL. Prions and prion diseases of the central nervous system (transmissible neurodegenerative diseases). In: Mandeli, GL, Bennett, JE, Dolin, R, eds. Principles and Practices of Infectious Diseases. Philadelphia: Chur-chill Livingstone; 2000:1971–1985.Google Scholar
116.Brown, P, Will, RG, Bradley, R, Asher, DM, Detwiler, L. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: background, evolution, and current concerns. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:6–16.Google Scholar
117.Association for peri-Operative Registered Nurses (AORN). Recommended practices for sterilization in the perioperative practice setting. In: AORN, ed. Standards, Recommended Practices, and Guidelines. Denver: AORN; 2006:629–643.Google Scholar