Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T17:33:53.922Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

SHEA Guideline for Preventing Nosocomial Transmission of Multidrug-Resistant Strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2015

Carlene A. Muto ,
John A. Jernigan ,
Belinda E. Ostrowsky ,
Hervé M. Richet ,
William R. Jarvis ,
John M. Boyce  and
Barry M. Farr
Carlene A. Muto*
Affiliation:
Division of Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control, UPMC-P, and the Infectious Diseases Epidemiology Research Unit, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
John A. Jernigan
Affiliation:
Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
Belinda E. Ostrowsky
Affiliation:
Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
Hervé M. Richet
Affiliation:
Hospital of Nantes, Nantes, France
William R. Jarvis
Affiliation:
National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
John M. Boyce
Affiliation:
Division of Hospital Epidemiology, Hospital of St. Raphael, and Infectious Diseases, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Barry M. Farr
Affiliation:
University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia
*
Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center – Presbyterian, 3471 Fifth Street, 1215 Kaufmann Building, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background:

Infection control programs were created three decades ago to control antibiotic-resistant healthcare-associated infections, but there has been little evidence of control in most facilities. After long, steady increases of MRSA and VRE infections in NNIS System hospitals, the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) Board of Directors made reducing antibiotic-resistant infections a strategic SHEA goal in January 2000. After 2 more years without improvement, a SHEA task force was appointed to draft this evidence-based guideline on preventing nosocomial transmission of such pathogens, focusing on the two considered most out of control: MRSA and VRE.

Methods:

Medline searches were conducted spanning 1966 to 2002. Pertinent abstracts of unpublished studies providing sufficient data were included.

Results:

Frequent antibiotic therapy in healthcare settings provides a selective advantage for resistant flora, but patients with MRSA or VRE usually acquire it via spread. The CDC has long-recommended contact precautions for patients colonized or infected with such pathogens. Most facilities have required this as policy, but have not actively identified colonized patients with surveillance cultures, leaving most colonized patients undetected and unisolated. Many studies have shown control of endemic and/or epidemic MRSA and VRE infections using surveillance cultures and contact precautions, demonstrating consistency of evidence, high strength of association, reversibility, a dose gradient, and specificity for control with this approach. Adjunctive control measures are also discussed.

Conclusion:

Active surveillance cultures are essential to identify the reservoir for spread of MRSA and VRE infections and make control possible using the CDC's long-recommended contact precautions.

Type
Special Report
Information
Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology , Volume 24 , Issue 5 , May 2003 , pp. 362 - 386
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Campaign to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance in Healthcare Settings: Why a Campaign? Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2001. Available at www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/healthcare/problem.htm.Google Scholar
2.Neu, HC. The crisis in antibiotic resistance. Science 1992;257:1064–1073.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.Marshall, G, Crofton, JW, Cruickshank, R, et al.The treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis with isoniazid. BMJ 1952;2:735–746.Google Scholar
4.Aubry-Damon, H, Soussy, CJ, Courvalin, RCharacterization of mutations in the rpoB gene that confer rifampin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998;42:2590–2594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Schmitz, FJ, Fluit, AC, Hafner, D, et al.Development of resistance to ciprofloxacin, rifampin, and mupirocin in methicillin-susceptible and -resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000;44:3229–3231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.O'Neill, AJ, Cove, JH, Chopra, I. Mutation frequencies for resistance to fusidic acid and rifampin in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001;47:647–650.Google Scholar
7.Eisenstadt, E, Carlton, BC, Brown, BJ. Gene mutation. In: Gerhardt, P, Murray, RGE, Wood, WAKrieg, NR, eds. Methods for General and Molecular Bacteriology. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1994:297–316.Google Scholar
8.Kucers, A, Bennett, N. The Use of Antibiotics, 4th ed. London: Heinemann Medical Books; 1987.Google Scholar
9.Holmes, O. The contagiousness of puerperal fever. N Engl Q J Med Surg 1842-1843;1:501–530.Google Scholar
10.Semmelweis, I. The Etiology, the Concept and the Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever. Pest, Hungary: CA Hartleben's Verlag-Expedition; 1861.Google Scholar
11.Darwin, C. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. London: J. Murry; 1859.Google Scholar
12.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System report: data summary from January 1990-May 1999. Am J Infect Control 1999;27:520–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. NNIS Antimicrobial Resistance Report: Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus (VRE) Facts. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1999.Google Scholar
14.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance (NNIS) System report: data summary from January 1992-June 2001. Am J Infect Control 2001;29:404–421.Google Scholar
15.Cosgrove, SE, Sakoulas, G, Perencevich, EN, Schwaber, MJ, Karchmer, AW, Carmeli, Y. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:53–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Carmeli, Y, Cosgrove, SE, Harbarth, S, Karchmer, AW, Kaye, KS, Qi, Y. The impact of methicillin-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia on patient outcomes: mortality, length of stay and hospital charge. Presented at the 41st Annual Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; December 16-19, 2001; Chicago, IL. Abstract K-122L415.Google Scholar
17.Engemann, JJ, Carmeli, Y, Cosgrove, SE, et al.Adverse clinical and economic outcomes attributable to methicillin resistance among patients with Staphylococcus aureus surgical site infection. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:592–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18.Salgado, C, Farr, B. The cost of vancomycin-resistance (VR): a metaanalysis. Presented at the 12th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 6-9, 2002; Salt Lake City, UT. Abstract 113:67.Google Scholar
19.Benson, K, Hartz, AJ. A comparison of observational studies and randomized controlled trials. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1878–1886.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Concato, J, Shah, N, Horwitz, RJ. Randomized controlled trials, observational studies, and the hierarchy of research designs. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1887–1892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21.Hiramatsu, K. Molecular evolution of MRSA. Microbiol Immunol 1995;39:531–543.Google Scholar
22.Hiramatsu, K, Cui, L, Kuroda, M, Ito, T. The emergence and evolution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Trends Microbiol 2001;9:486–493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Kreiswirth, B, Kornblum, J, Arbeit, WE, et al.Evidence for a clonal origin of methicillin-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Science 1993;259:227–230.Google Scholar
24.Oliveira, DC, Tomasz, Ade Lencastre, H. The evolution of pandemic clones of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: identification of two ancestral genetic backgrounds and the associated mec elements. Microb Drug Resist 2001;7:349–361.Google Scholar
25.Musser, J, Kapur, V. Clonal analysis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from intercontinental sources: association of the mee gene with divergent phylogenetic lineages implies dissemination by horizontal transfer and recombination. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:2058–2063.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Givney, R, Vickery, AHolliday, A, Pegler, M, Benn, R. Evolution of an endemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus population in an Australian hospital from 1967-1996. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:552–556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27.Crisostomo, MI, Westh, H, Tomasz, AChung, M, Oliveria, DC, de Lencastre, H. The evolution of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: similarity of genetic backgrounds in historically early methicillin-susceptible and resistant and contemporary epidemic clones. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:9865–9870.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Enright, MC, Robinson, DA, Randle, G, Feil, DJ, Grundmann, H, Spratt, BG. The evolutionary history of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:7687–7692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Haley, RW, Cushion, NB, Tenover, FC, et al.Eradication of endemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections from a neonatal intensive care unit. J Infect Dis 1995;171:614–624.Google Scholar
30.Jernigan, JATitus, MG, Groschel, DHM, Getchell-White, SI, Farr, BM. Effectiveness of contact isolation during a hospital outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:496–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Salmenlinna, S, Lyytikainen, O, Kotilainen, P, Scotford, R, Siren, E, Vuopio-Varkila, J. Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Finland. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000;19:101–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Roberts, RB, de Lancastre, AEisner, W, et al.Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in 12 New York hospitals: MRSA collaborative group. J Infect Dis 1998;178:164–171.Google Scholar
33.de Lancastre, H, Severina, EP, Roberts, RB, Kreiswirth, B, Tomasz, A. Testing the efficacy of a molecular surveillance network: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREF) genotypes in six hospitals in the metropolitan New York City area. The BARG Initiative Pilot Study Group. Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance Group. Microb Drug Resist 1996;2:343–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Roman, RS, Smith, J, Walker, M, et al.Rapid geographic spread of a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:698–705.Google Scholar
35.Villari, P, Farullo, C, Torre, I, Nani, E. Molecular characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a university hospital in Italy. Eur J Epidemiol 1998;14:802–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36.Diekema, DJ, Pfaller, MATurnidge, J, et al.Genetic relatedness of mul-tidrug-resistant, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream isolates: SENTRY antimicrobial resistance surveillance centers worldwide. Microb Drug Resist 2000;6:213–221.Google Scholar
37.Vriens, MR, Fluit, AC, Troelstra, AVerhoef, J, Van Der Werken, C. Are MRSA more contagious than MSSA in a surgical intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:491–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38.Witte, W, Cuny, C, Braulke, C, Heuck, D, Klare, I. Widespread dissemination of epidemic MRSA in German hospitals. Eurosurveillance 1997;2:25–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Austin, DJ, Anderson, RM. Transmission dynamics of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant enterococci in England and Wales. J Infect Dis 1999;179:883–891.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Deplano, AWitte, W, Van Leeuwen, WJ, Brun, Y, Straelens, MJ. Clonal dissemination of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Belgium and neighboring countries. Clin Microbiol Infect 2000;6:239–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41.Galdbart, JO, Morvan, A, El Solh, N. Phenotypic and molecular typing of nosocomial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains susceptible to gentamicin isolated from France from 1995-1997. J Clin Microbiol 2000;8:185–190.Google Scholar
42.Sanchez, IS, Ramirez, M, Troni, H, et al.Evidence for geographic spread of a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clone between Portugal and Spain. J Clin Microbiol 1995;33:1234–1236.Google Scholar
43.Thompson, RL, Cabezudo, I, Wenzel, RP. Epidemiology of nosocomial infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Ann Intern Med 1982;97:309–317.Google Scholar
44.Verhoef, J, Beaujean, D, Blok, H, et al.A Dutch approach to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1999;18:461–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Jernigan, JA, Clemence, MA, Stott, GA, et al.Control of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus at a university hospital: one decade later. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:686–696.Google Scholar
46.Chaix, C, Durand-Zaleski, I, Alberti, C, Brun-Buisson, C. Control of endemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a cost benefit analysis in an intensive care unit. JAMA 1999;282:1745–1751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47.Jans, B, Suetens, C, Straelens, M. Decreasing MRSA rates in Belgian hospitals: results from the national surveillance network after introduction of national guidelines. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:419.Google Scholar
48.Bager, F. DANMAP 98: Consumption of Antimicrobial Agents and Occurrence of Antimicrobials in Bacteria From Food Animals, Food and Humans in Denmark. Copenhagen: Statens Serum Institut, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Danish Medicines Agency, Danish Veterinary Laboratory; 1998. Available at www.svs.dk/dk/z/Danmap%201998.pd. 1999.Google Scholar
49.Harbarth, S, Martin, Y, Rohner, P, Henry, N, Auckenthaler, R, Pittet, D. Effect of delayed infection control measures on a hospital outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, J Hosp Infect 2000;46:43–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50.Merrer, J, Santoli, F, Appere de Vecchi, C, Tran, B, De Jonghe, B, Outin, H. “Colonization pressure” and risk of acquisition of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a medical intensive care unit Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:718–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Farr, BM, Saigado, CD, Karchmer, TB, Sherertz, RJ. Can antibiotic-resistant nosocomial infections be controlled? Lancet Infect Dis 2001;1:38–45.Google Scholar
52.Vincent, JL, Biliari, DJ, Suter, PM, et al.The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe: results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) Study. EPIC International Advisory Committee. JAMA 1995;274:639–644.Google Scholar
53.Cars, O, Molstad, S, Melander, A. Variation in antibiotic use in the European Union. Lancet 2001;357:1851–1853.Google Scholar
54.Frank, MO, Batteiger, BE, Sorensen, SJ, et al.Decrease in expenditures and selected nosocomial infections following implementation of an antimicrobial-prescribing improvement program. Clinical Performance and Quality Healthcare 1997;5:180–188.Google ScholarPubMed
55.Fukatsu, K, Saito, HK, Matsuda, T, Ikeda, S, Furukawa, S, Muto, T. Influences of type and duration of antimicrobial prophylaxis on an outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and on the incidence of wound infection. Arch Surg 1997;132:1320–1325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56.Batteiger, BE. Personal communication. Indianapolis: Indiana University; 2001.Google Scholar
57.Back, NA, Linnemann, CC Jr, Staneck, JL, Kotagal, UR. Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal intensive-care unit: use of intensive microbiologic surveillance and mupirocin. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:227–231.Google Scholar
58.Barrett, FF, McGehee, RF, Finland, M. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at Boston City Hospital. N Engl J Med 1968;279:441–448.Google Scholar
59.Boyce, JM. Are the epidemiology and microbiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus changing? JAMA 1998;279:623–624.Google Scholar
60.Brumfitt, W, Hamilton-Miller, J. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med 1989;320:1188–1196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Naimi, TS, LeDell, KH, Boxrud, D, et al.Epidemiology and clonality of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Minnesota, 1996-1998. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:990–996.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Frank, AL, Marcinak, JF, Mangat, PD, Schreckeberger, PC. Community-acquired and clindamycin-susceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:993–1000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63.Suggs, AH, Maranan, MC, Boyle-Vavra, S, Daum, RS. Methicillin-resistant and borderline methicillin-resistant asymptomatic Staphylococcus colonization in children without identifiable risk factors. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:410–414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.Herold, BD, Immergluck, LC, Maranan, MC, et al.Community-acquired methicillin in children with no identified predisposing risk. JAMA 1998;279:593–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65.Adcock, PM, Pastor, P, Medley, F, Patterson, JE, Murphy, TV. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in two child care centers. J Infect Dis 1998;178:577–580.Google Scholar
66.Embil, J, Ramotar, K, Romance, L, et al.Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in tertiary care institutions on the Canadian prairies 1990-1992. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:646–651.Google ScholarPubMed
67.Shahin, R, Johnson, IL, Jamieson, F, McGeer, A, Tolkin, J, Ford-Jones, EL. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage in a child care center following a case of disease. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1999;153:864–868.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Four pediatric deaths from community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Minnesota and North Dakota, 1997-1999. MMWR 1999;48:707–710.Google Scholar
69.Morin, CA, Hadler, JL. Population-based incidence and characteristics of community-onset Staphylococcus aureus infections with bacteremia in 4 metropolitan Connecticut areas, 1998. J Infect Dis 2001;184:1029–1034.Google Scholar
70.Layton, MC, Hierholzer, WJ, Patterson, JE. The evolving epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at a university hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:12–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71.Troillet, N, Carmeli, Y, Samore, MH, et al.Carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at hospital admission. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:181–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72.Groom, AV, Wolsey, DH, Naimi, TS, et al.Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a rural American Indian community, J AMA 2001;286:1201–1205.Google Scholar
73.Salmenlinna, S, Lyytikainen, O, Vuopio-Varkila, J. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Finland. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:602–607.Google Scholar
74.Sa-Leao, R, Sanches, IS, Couto, I, Alves, CR, de Lencastre, H. Low prevalence of methicillin-resistant strains among Staphylococcus aureus colonizing young and healthy members of the community in Portugal. Microb Drug Resist 2001;7:237–245.Google Scholar
75.Shopsin, B, Mathema, B, Martinez, J, et al.Prevalence of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus in the community. J Infect Dis 2000;182:359–362.Google Scholar
76.Muto, CA, Cage, EG, Durbin, LJ, Simonton, BM, Farr, BM. The utility of culturing patients on admission transferred from other health care facilities for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Presented at the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 18-20, 1999; San Francisco, CA. Abstract M33:67.Google Scholar
77.Calfee, DP, Durbin, LJ, Germanson, TP, Toney, DM, Smith, EB, Farr, BM. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) among household contacts of individuals with nosocomially-acquired MRSAInfect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2003. In press.Google Scholar
78.Sanford, MD, Widmer, AF, Bale, MJ, Jones, RN, Wenzel, RP. Efficient detection and long-term persistence of the carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 1994;19:1123–1128.Google Scholar
79.Gold, HS. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: mechanisms and clinical observations. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:210–219.Google Scholar
80.Bonten, MJ, Willems, R, Weinstein, RA. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: why are they here, and where do they come from? Lancet Infect Dis 2001;1:314–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81.Murray, BE. What can we do about vancomycin-resistant enterococci? Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:1134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82.Martone, WJ. Spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci: why did it happen in the United States? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:539–545.Google Scholar
83.Carmeli, Y, Samore, MH, Huskins, C. The association between antecedent vancomycin treatment and hospital-acquired vancomycin-resistant enterococci: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2461–2468.Google Scholar
84.Salgado, C, Calfee, DP, Giannetta, ET, Farr, BM. Rate of turning culture positive for vancomycin-resistant enterococcus after treatment with oral vancomycin. Presented at the 39th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; October 25-28, 2001; San Francisco, CA. Abstract (507): 126.Google Scholar
85.Coque, TM, Tomayko, JF, Ricke, SC, Okhyusen, PC, Murray, BE. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci from nosocomial, community, and animal sources in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996;40:2605–2609.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86.Morris, JG, Shay, DK, Hebden, JN, et al.Enterococci resistant to multiple antimicrobial agents including vancomycin: establishment of endemicity in a university medical center. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:250–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
87.Cetinkaya, Y, Falk, P, Mayhall, CG. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000;13:686–707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88.Bates, J. Epidemiology of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus in the community and the relevance of farm animals to human infection. J Hosp Infect 1997;37:89–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89.Wegener, HC, Aarestrup, FM, Jensen, LB, Hammerum, AM, Bager, E, Use of antimicrobial growth promoters in food animals and Enterococcus faecium resistance to therapeutic antimicrobial drugs in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 1999;5:329–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90.Klare, I, Heier, H, Claus, H, Reissbrodt, R, Witt, W. vanA-mediated high-level glycopeptide resistance in Enterococcus faecium from animal husbandry. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1995;125:165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91.Devriese, LA, leven, M, Goossens, H, et al.Presence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in farm and pet animais. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996;40:2285–2287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92.Borgen, K, Simonsen, G, Sundsfjord, A, Wasteson, Y, Olsvik, O, Kruse, H. Continuing high prevalence of VanA-rype vancomycin-resistant enterococci on Norwegian poultry farms three years after avoparcin was banned. J Appi Microbiol 2000;89:478–485.Google Scholar
93.Willems, R, Homan, W, Top, J, et al.Variant esp gene as a marker of a distinct genetic lineage of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium spreading in hospitals. Lancet 2001;357:853–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
94.Rice, LB, Carias, L, Rudin, S, et al.A potential virulence gene, hylEfm, predominates in Enterococcus faecium of clinical origin. J Infect Dis 2003;187:508–512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95.Boyce, JM, Mermel, LA, Zervos, MJ, et al.Controlling vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:634–637.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96.Boyce, JM, Opal, SM, Chow, JW, et al.Outbreak of multi-drug resistant Enterococcus faecium with transferable vanB class vancomycin resistance. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:1148–1153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
97.Clark, NC, Cooksey, RC, Hill, BC, Swenson, JM, Tenover, FC. Characterization of glycopeptide-resistant enterococci from U.S. hospitals. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993;37:2311–2317.Google Scholar
98.Handwerger, S, Raucher, B, Altarac, D, et al.Nosocomial outbreak due to Enterococcus faecium highly resistant to vancomycin, penicillin, and gentamicin. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99.Livornese, LL, Dias, S, Romanowski, B, et al.Hospital-acquired infection with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium transmitted by electronic thermometers. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:112–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100.Kim, WJ, Weinstein, RAHayden, MK. The changing molecular epidemiology and establishment of endemicity of vancomycin resistance in enterococci at one hospital over a 6-year period. J Infect Dis 1999;179:163–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101.Moreno, RM, Grota, P, Crisp, C, et al.Clinical and molecular epidemiology of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium during its emergence in a city in Southern Texas. Clin Infect Dis 1995;21:1234–1237.Google Scholar
102.Byers, KE, Anglim, AM, Anneski, CJ, et al.A hospital epidemic of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus: risk factors and control. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:140–147.Google Scholar
103.Handwerger, S, Skoble, J, Discottoo, LF, Pucci, MJ. Heterogeneity of the vanA gene in clinical isolates of enterococci from the Northeastern United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995;39:362–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104.Mato, R, de Lancesstre, H, Carraher, M, Robers, RB, Tomasz, A. Multiplicity of genetic backgrounds among vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium isolates recovered from an outbreak in a New York City Hospital. Microb Drug Resist 1996;2:309–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
105.Slaughter, S, Hayden, MK, Nathan, C, et al.A comparison of the effect of universal use of gloves and gowns with that of glove use alone on acquisition of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a medical intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med 1996;125:448–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106.Muto, CA, Posey, K, Pokrywka, M, et al.The value of identifying the vancomycin resistant enterococci (VRE) reservoir using weekly VRE surveillance culturing (VRESC): “the iceberg melts.”Presented at the 12th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 6-9, 2002; Salt Lake City, UT. Abstract.Google Scholar
107.Nelson, RR, McGregor, KF, Brown, AR, Amyes, GS, Young, H. Isolation and characterization of glycopeptide-resistant enterococci from hospitalized patients over a 30 month period. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:2112–2116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108.Stosor, V, Kruszynski, J, Suriano, XNoskin, GA, Peterson, LR. Molecular epidemiology of vancomycin-resistant enterococci: a 2-year perspective. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:653–659.Google Scholar
109.de Lencastre, H, Brown, AE, Chung, M, Armstrong, D, Tomasz, A. Role of transposon Tn5482 in the epidemiology of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in the pediatric oncology unit of a New York City hospital. Microb Drug Resist 1999;5:113–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110.Beezhold, DW, Slaughter, S, Hayden, MK, et al.Skin colonization with vancomycin-resistant enterococci among hospitalized patients with bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:704–706.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111.Tornieporth, NG, Roberts, RB, John, J, Hafner, A, Riley, LW. Risk factors associated with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium infection or colonization in 145 matched case patients and control patients. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:767–772.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
112.Bonten, MJ, Hayden, MK, Nathan, C, et al.Epidemiology of colonization of patients and environment with vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Lancet 1996;348:1615–1619.Google Scholar
113.Donskey, CJ, Chowdhry, T, Hecker, M, et al.Effect of antibiotic therapy on the density of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in the stool of colonized patients. N Engl J Med 2000;343:1925–1932.Google Scholar
114.Bonten, MJ, Slaughter, S, Ambergen, AW, et al.The role of “colonization pressure” in the spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci: an important infection control variable. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:1127–1132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115.Quale, J, Landman, D, Saurina, G, Atwood, E, DiTore, V, Patel, K. Manipulation of a hospital antimicrobial formulary to control an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:1020–1025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116.Goetz, AM, Rihs, JD, Wagener, MM, Muder, RR. Infection and colonization with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in an acute care Veterans Affairs Medical Center: a 2-year survey. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:558–562.Google Scholar
117.Fridkin, SK, Steward, CD, Edwards, JR, et al.Surveillance of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in United States hospitals: Project ICARE phase 2. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:245–252.Google Scholar
118.Lautenbach, E, LaRosa, LA, Marr, AM, Nachamkin, I, Bilker, WB, Fishman, NO. Changes in the prevalence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in response to antimicrobial formulary interventions: impact of progressive restrictions on use of vancomycin and third-generation cephalosporins. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:440–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119.Ostrowsky, BE, Trick, WE, Sohn, AH, et al.Control of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus in health care facilities in a region. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1427–1433.Google Scholar
120.Montecalvo, MA, Jarvis, WR, Uman, J, et al.Costs and savings associated with infection control measures that reduced transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an endemic setting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:437–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
121.Mortimer, EA, Lipsitz, PJ, Wolinksy, E, et al.Transmission of staphylococci between newborns. Am J Dis Child 1962;104:289–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
122.Zachary, KC, Bayne, PS, Morrison, V, Ford, DS, Silver, LC, Hooper, DC. Contamination of gowns, gloves, and stethoscopes with vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:560–564.Google Scholar
123.Cookson, B, Peters, B, Webster, M, Phillips, I, Rahman, M, Noble, W. Staff carriage of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol 1989;27:1471–1476.Google Scholar
124.Lacey, S, Flaxman, D, Scales, J, Wilson, A. The usefulness of masks in preventing transient carriage of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by healthcare workers. J Hosp Infect 2001;48:308–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
125.Wells, CL, Juni, BA, Cameron, SB, et al.Stool carriage, isolation, and mortality during outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in hospitalized medical and/or surgical patients. Clin Infect Dis 1995;21:45–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
126.Bonilla, HF, Zervos, MA, Lyons, MJ, et al.Colonization with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium: comparison of a long-term care unit with an acute-care hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:333–339.Google Scholar
127.Noskin, GA, Stosor, V, Cooper, I, Peterson, L. Recovery of vancomycin-resistant enterococci on fingertips and environmental surfaces. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:577–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
128.Suh, HK, Jeon, YH, Song, SJ. A molecular epidemiologic study of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in patients undergoing middle ear surgery. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 1998;255:347–351.Google Scholar
129.Opal, SM, Mayer, KH, Stenberg, MJ, et al.Frequent acquisition of multiple strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by healthcare workers in an endemic hospital environment. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11:479–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
130.Devine, J, Cooke, RP, Wright, EP. Is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) contamination of ward-based computer terminals a surrogate marker for nosocomial MRSA transmission and handwashing compliance, J Hosp Infect 2001;48:72–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
131.Layton, MC, Perez, M, Heald, Patterson, JE. An outbreak of mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a dermatology ward associated with an environmental reservoir. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:369–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
132.Boyce, JM, Potter-Bynoe, G, Chenevert, C, King, T. Environmental contamination due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: possible infection control implications. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:622–627.Google Scholar
133.Neely, AN, Maley, MP. Survival of enterococci and staphylococci on hospital fabrics and plastics. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:724–726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
134.Boyce, JM, Chenevert, C. Isolation gowns prevent health care workers (HCWs) from contaminating their clothing, and possibly their hands, with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and resistant enterococci. Presented at the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 5-7, 1998; Orlando, FL. Abstract S74:52.Google Scholar
135.Puzniak, LA, Leet, T, Mayfield, J, Kollef, M, Mundy, LM. To gown or not to gown: the effect on acquisition of vancomycin resistant enterococci. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:18–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
136.Srinivasan, A, Song, X, Bower, R, et al.A prospective study to determine whether cover gowns in addition to gloves decrease nosocomial transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an ICU. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:424–428.Google Scholar
137.Calfee, DP, Farr, BM. Infection control and cost control in the era of managed care. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:407–410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
138.Karanfil, LV, Murphy, M, Josephson, A, et al.A cluster of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in an intensive care unit Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:195–200.Google Scholar
139.Montecalvo, MA, Horowitz, H, Gedris, C, Carbonaro, C, Tenover, FC, Issah, A. Outbreak of vancomycin-, ampicillin-, and aminoglycoside-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteremia in an adult oncology unit. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994;38:1363–1367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
140.Dembry, L, Uzokwe, K, Zervos, M. Control of endemic glycopeptide-resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:286–292.Google Scholar
141.Rupp, ME, Marion, N, Fey, PD, et al.Outbreak of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in a neonatal intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:301–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
142.Malik, RK, Montecalvo, MA, Reale, MR, et al.Epidemiology and control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a regional neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatric Infect Dis f 1999;18:352–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
143.Muto, CA, Karchmer, TB, Cage, EG, Durbin, LJ, Simonton, B, Farr, BM. The utility of culturing roommates of patients with vancomycin resistant enterocccus. Presented at the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 5-7, 1998; Orlando, FL. Abstract 76:38.Google Scholar
144.Rubin, LG, Tucci, V, Cercenado, E, Elipoulos, G, Isenberg, HD. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in hospitalized children. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:700–705.Google Scholar
145.Jochimsen, E, Fish, L, Manning, K, et al.Control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci at a community hospital: efficacy of patient and staff cohorting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:106–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
146.Golan, Y, Sullivan, B, Snydman, DR. Elimination of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE) transmission in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Presented at the 39th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; October 25-28, 2001; San Francisco, CA. Abstract 209:75.Google Scholar
147.Price, CS, Paule, S, Noskin, GA, Peterson, LR. Active surveillance reduces vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) bloodstream isolates. Presented at the 39th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; October 25-28, 2001; San Francisco, CA Abstract 212:75.Google Scholar
148.Siddiqui, AH, Harris, AD, Hebden, J, Wilson, PD, Morris, JG, Roghmann, M. The effect of active surveillance for vancomycin resistant enterococci in high risk units on vancomycin resistant enterococci incidence hospital-wide. Am J Infect Control 2002;30:40–43.Google Scholar
149.Calfee, DP, Giannetta, E, Farr, BM. Effective control of VRE colonization using CDC recommendations for detection and isolation. Presented at the 38th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; September 7-10, 2000; New Orleans, LA. Abstract 21:44.Google Scholar
150.Ackelsberg, J, Kostman, J. A laboratory and clinical study of stethoscopes as potential fomites of infection. Presented at the 33rd Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; September 16-18, 1995; San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
151.Bernard, L, Kereveur, A, Durand, D, et al.Bacterial contamination of hospital physicians' stethoscopes. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:626–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
152.Breathnach, AS, Jenkins, DR, Pedler, SJ. Stethoscopes as possible vectors of infection by staphylococci. BMJ 1992;305:1573–1574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
153.Maki, DG, Halvorson, K, Fisher, S. The stethoscope: a medical device with potential for amplifying cross-infection of resistant nosocomial organisms in the hospital. Presented at the 36th Annual Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 15-18, 1996; New Orleans, LA. Abstract 154:247.Google Scholar
154.Smith, MA, Mathewson, JJ, Ulert, IA, Scerpella, EG, Ericsson, CD. Contaminated stethoscopes revisited. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:82–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
155.Cohen, HA, Amir, J, Matalon, A, Mayan, R, Beni, S, Barzilai, A. Stethoscopes and otoscopes: a potential vector of infection? Fam Pract 1997;14:446–449.Google Scholar
156.Singh, D, Kaur, H, Gardner, WG, Treen, LB. Bacterial contamination of hospital pagers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:274–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
157.Brooks, S, Khan, AStoica, D, Griffith, J. Reduction in vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus and Clostridium difficile infections following change to tympanic thermometers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:333–336.Google Scholar
158.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). Draft Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control in Healthcare Facilities. Atlanta, GACenters for Disease Control and Prevention; 2001. Available at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/hip/enviro/guide.htm.Google Scholar
159.Edmond, MB, Ober, JF, Weinbaum, DL, et al.Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteremia: risk factors for infection. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:1126–1133.Google Scholar
160.Wendt, C, Wiesenthal, B, Dietz, E, Ruden, H. Survival of vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-susceptible enterococci on dry surfaces. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:3734–3736.Google Scholar
161.Smith, TL, Iwen, PC, Olson, SB, Rupp, ME. Environmental contamination with vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an outpatient setting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:515–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
162.Oie, S, Kamiya, A. Survival of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) on naturally contaminated dry mop. J Hosp Infect 1996;34:145–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
163.Noskin, GA, Peterson, L, Warren, J. Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis bacteremia: acquisition and outcome. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:296–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
164.Dietz, B, Raht, AWendt, C, Martiny, H. Survival of MRSA on sterile goods packaging. J Hosp Infect 2001;49:255–261.Google Scholar
165.McDade, J, Hall, L. Survival of Staphylococcus aureus in the environment: I. Exposure on surfaces. American Journal of Hygiene 1963;78:330–337.Google Scholar
166.Rutala, W, Katz, E, Sherertz, R, Sarubbi, F. Environmental study of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus epidemic in a burn unit. J Clin Microbiol 1983;18:683–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
167.Embil, J, McLeod, J, Al-Barrak, AM, et al.An outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a burn unit: potential role of contaminated hydrotherapy equipment. Burn 2001;27:681–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
168.Noskin, GABednarz, P, Suriano, T, Reiner, S, Peterson, LR. Persistent contamination of fabric-covered furniture by vancomycin-resistant enterococci: implications for upholstery selection in hospitals. Am J Infect Control 2000;28:311–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
169.Falk, PS, Winnike, J, Woodmansee, C, Desai, M, Mayhall, CG. Outbreak due to vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) in a burn unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:575–582.Google Scholar
170.Rimland, D. Nosocomial infections with methicillin and tobramycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: implication of physiotherapy in hospital-wide dissemination. Am J Med Sci 1985;290:91–97.Google Scholar
171.Law, MR, Gill, ON. Hospital-acquired infection with methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive staphylococci. Epidemiol Infect 1988;101:623–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
172.Murray-Leisure, KA, Geib, S, et al.Control of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11:343–350.Google Scholar
173.Nicolle, LE, Dyck, B, Thompson, G, et al.Regional dissemination and control of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:202–205.Google Scholar
174.Cantey, J, Rhoton, B, Southgate, W, Snyder, C. Control of spread of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal ICU. Presented at the 12th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 6-9, 2002; Salt Lake City, UT. Abstract 36:49.Google Scholar
175.Croyle, K, Muto, C. Surveillance cultures in the race against MRSA ahead by a nose. Presented at the 12th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 6-9, 2002; Salt Lake City, UT. Abstract 35:49.Google Scholar
176.Kotilainen, P, Routamaa, M, Peltonen, R, et al.Eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a health center ward and associated nursing home. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:859–863.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
177.Nouer, A, Araujo, A, Chebabo, ACardoso, F, Pinto, M, Hospital Universitario Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in an intensive care unit (ICU) after the institution of routine screening. Presented at the 42nd General Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 27-30, 2002; San Francisco, CA Abstract K-97:97.Google Scholar
178.Horcajada, J, Marco, F, Martinez, J, et al.Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization at admission in a tertiary hospital: usefulness of early detection. Presented at the 42nd General Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 27-30, 2002; San Francisco, CA Abstract K-98.Google Scholar
179.Gerard, M, Dediste, A, Van Esse, R, et al.Cost effectiveness of a policy of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) screening, decontamination and isolation in a medical ICU. Presented at the 42nd General Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 27-30, 2002; San Francisco, CA Abstract K-99.Google Scholar
180.Green, K, Fleming, CARichardson, H, Low, DE, Willey, B, McGeer, A. MRSA and VRE in Ontario, Canada: results of 7 years of surveillance and control measures. Presented at the 42nd General Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 27-30, 2002; San Francisco, CA Abstract K661.Google Scholar
181.Muto, CAGiannetta, ET, Durbin, LJ, Simonton, BM, Farr, BM. Cost effectiveness of perirectal surveillance cultures for controlling vancomycin-resistant enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:429–435.Google Scholar
182.Armstrong-Evans, M, Litt, M, Willey, B, et al.Control of transmission of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in a long-term-care facility. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:312–317.Google Scholar
183.Hill, AB. A Short Textbook of Medical Statistics, vol. 11. London: Hodder and Stoughton; 1984.Google Scholar
184.Salgado, C, Sherertz, R, Karchmer, T, et al.Public health initiative to control MRSA and VRE in Virginia and North Carolina. Presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 1-3, 2001; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Abstract 164:75.Google Scholar
185.Arnold, MS, Dempsey, JM, Fishman, M, McAuley, PJ, Tibert, C, Vallande, NC. The best hospital practices for controlling methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: on the culturing edge. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:69–76.Google Scholar
186.D'Agata, EMC, Thayer, V, Shaffner, W. An outbreak of Acinetobacter baumannii: the importance of cross transmission. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:588–591.Google Scholar
187.Simor, AE, Lee, M, Vearncombe, M, et al.An outbreak due to multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii in an acute burn care unit: risk factors for acquisition and management. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:261–267.Google Scholar
188.Piagnerelli, M, Carlier, E, Deplano, ALejeune, P, Govaerts, D. Risk factors for infection and molecular typing in patients in the intensive care unit colonized with nosocomial Enterobacter aerogenes. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:452–456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
189.Selkon, JB, Stokes, ER, Ingham, HR. The role of an isolation unit in the control of hospital infection with methicillin resistant staphylococci. J Hosp Infect 1980;1:41–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
190.Pearman, JW, Christiansen, KJ, Annear, DI, et al.Control of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in an Australian metropolitan teaching hospital complex. Med J Aust 1985;142:103–108.Google Scholar
191.Shanson, DC, Johnstone, D, Midgley, J. Control of a hospital outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: value of an isolation unit. J Hosp Infect 1985;6:285–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
192.Price, EH, Brain, A, Dickson, JAS. An outbreak with a gentamicin and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal unit. J Hosp Infect 1980;1:221–228.Google Scholar
193.Farrington, M, Redpath, C, Trundle, C, Coomber, S, Brown, NM. Winning the battle but losing the war: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection at a teaching hospital. QJM 1998;91:539–548.Google Scholar
194.Kunin, CM, Tupasi, T, Craig, WA. Use of antibiotics: a brief exposition of the problem and some tentative solutions. Ann Intern Med 1973;79:555–560.Google Scholar
195.Zuckerman, RA, Steele, L, Venezia, RA, Tobin, EH. Undetected vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus in surgical intensive care unit patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:685–686.Google Scholar
196.Ostrowsky, B, Venkataraman, L, D'Agata, E, Gold, H, DeGirolami, P, Samore, M. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in intensive care units: high frequency of stool carriage during a non-outbreak period. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1467–1472.Google Scholar
197.Austin, DJ, Bonten, MJM, Weinstein, RA, Slaughter, S, Anderson, RM. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in intensive-care hospital settings: transmission dynamics, persistence, and the impact of infection control programs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:6908–6913.Google Scholar
198.Sebile, V, Chevret, S, Valieron, A. Modeling the spread of resistant nosocomial pathogens in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:84–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
199.Warren, DK, Kollef, MH, Seiler, SM, Fridken, SK, Fraser, VJ. The epidemiology of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus colonization in a medical intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003;24:257–263.Google Scholar
200.Ridwan, B, Mascini, E, van Der, RN, Verhoef, J, Bonten, M. What action should be taken to prevent spread of vancomycin resistant enterococci in European hospitals? BMJ 2002;324:666–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
201.Brisse, S, Fussing, V, Ridwan, B, Verhoef, J, Willems, RJ. Automated ribotyping of vancomycin resistant Enterococcus faecium isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:1977–1984.Google Scholar
202.Francois, P, Pittet, D, Bento, M, et al.Rapid detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus directly from sterile or nonsterile clinical samples by a new molecular assay. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:254–260.Google Scholar
203.Lankford, MG, Zembower, TR, Trick, WE, Hacek, DM, Noskin, GA, Peterson, LR. Impact of hospital design on the handwashing compliance among healthcare workers. Presented at the 38th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; September 7-10, 2000; New Orleans, LA. Abstract 18:43.Google Scholar
204.Preston, GA, Larson, EL, Stamm, W. The effect of private isolation rooms on patient care practices, colonization and infection in an intensive care unit. Am J Med 1981;70:641–645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
205.Albert, RK, Condie, F. Handwashing patterns in medical intensive care units. N Engl J Med 1981;304:1465.Google Scholar
206.Larson, E. Compliance with isolation technique. Am J Infect Control 1983;11:221–225.Google Scholar
207.Donowitz, LG, Hunt, EH, Pugh, VG, Farr, BM, Hendley, JO. Comparison of historical and serologic immunity to varicella-zoster virus in 373 hospital employees. Am J Infect Control 1987;15:212–214.Google Scholar
208.Graham, M. Frequency and duration of handwashing in an intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 1990;18:77–81.Google Scholar
209.Dubbert, PM, Dolce, J, Richter, W, Miller, M, Chapman, S. Increasing ICU staff handwashing: effects of education and group feedback. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11:191–193.Google Scholar
210.Pettinger, A, Nettleman, MD. Epidemiology of isolation precautions. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12:303–307.Google Scholar
211.Larson, EL, McGinley, K, Foglia, Aet al.Handwashing practices and resistance and density of bacterial hand flora on two pediatric units in Lima, Peru. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;20:65–72.Google Scholar
212.Doebbeling, BN, Pfaller, MAHouston, AK, Wenzel, RP. Removal of nosocomial pathogens from the contaminated glove: implications for glove reuse and handwashing. Ann Intern Med 1988;109:394–398.Google Scholar
213.Zimakoff, J, Kjelsberg, AB, Larsen, SO, Holstein, B. A multicenter questionnaire investigation of attitudes toward hand hygiene, assessed by the staff in fifteen hospitals in Denmark and Norway. Am J Infect Control 1992;20:58–64.Google Scholar
214.Meengs, MR, Giles, BK, Chisholm, CD, Cordell, WH, Nelson, DR. Hand washing frequency in an emergency department J Emerg Nurs 1994;20:183–188.Google Scholar
215.Pittet, D, Hugonnet, S, Harbarth, S, et al.Effectiveness of a hospital-wide programme to improve compliance with hand hygiene: infection control programme. Lancet 2000;356:1307–1312.Google Scholar
216.Pittet, D, Mourouga, P, Perneger, TV. Compliance with handwashing in a teaching hospital. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:126–130.Google Scholar
217.Vernon, MO, Trick, WE, Welbel, SF, Peterson, BJ, Weinstein, RAHand hygiene adherence: does the number of sinks matter? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003;24:224–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
218.Boyce, JM, Pittet, D. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. MMWR 2002;51(RR16):1–45.Google Scholar
219.Grundmann, H, Hori, S, Winter, B, Tami, A, Austin, DJ. Risk factors for the transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an adult intensive care unit: fitting a model to the data J Infect Dis 2002;185:481–488.Google Scholar
220.Larson, EL, Early, E, Cloonan, P, Sugrue, S, Parides, M. An organizational climate intervention associated with increased handwashing and decreased nosocomial infections. Behav Med 2000;26:14–22.Google Scholar
221.Webster, J, Faoagali, JL, Cartwright, D. Elimination of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a neonatal intensive care unit after hand washing with triclosan. J Paediatr Child Health 1994;30:59–64.Google Scholar
222.Zafar, AB, Butler, RC, Reese, DJ, Gaydos, LAUse of 0.3% triclosan (Bacti-Stat*) to eradicate an outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal nursery. Am J Infect Control 1995;23:200–208.Google Scholar
223.Lucet, JC, Rigaud, MP, Mentre, F, et al.Hand contamination before and after different hand hygiene techniques: a randomized clinical trial. J Hosp Infect 2002;50:276–280.Google Scholar
224.Pittet, D, Dharan, S, Touveneau, S, Sauvan, V, Perneger, TV. Bacterial contamination of the hands of hospital staff during routine patient care. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:821–826.Google Scholar
225.raein, BS, Perloff, WH, Maki, DG. Reduction of nosocomial infection during pediatric intensive care by protective isolation. N Engl J Med 1989;320:1714–1721.Google Scholar
226.Leclair, JM, Freeman, J, Sullivan, BF, Crowley, CM, Goldmann, DA. Prevention of nosocomial RSV infections through compliance with glove and gown isolation precautions. N Engl J Med 1987;317:329–334.Google Scholar
227.Olsen, RJ, Lynch, P, Coyle, MB, Cummings, J, Bokete, T, Stamm, WE. Examination gloves as barriers to hand contamination in clinical practice. JAMA 1993;270:350–353.Google Scholar
228.Tenorio, AR, Badri, SM, Sahgal, NB, et al.Effectiveness of gloves in the prevention of hand carriage of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus species by health care workers after patient care. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:826–829.Google Scholar
229.Johnson, S, Gerding, DN, Olson, MM, et al.Prospective, controlled study of vinyl glove use to interrupt Clostridium difficile nosocomial transmission. Am J Med 1990;88:137–140.Google Scholar
230.Muto, CAByers, KE, Karchmer, TB, Dill, JB, Durbin, LJ, Farr, BM. Controlling vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE) at a university hospital. Presented at the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 27-29, 1997; St. Louis, MO. Abstract 52:28.Google Scholar
231.Karchmer, TB, Ribadeneyra, MG, Durbin, LJ, Giannetta, E, Farr, BM. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization among resident-physicians at a teaching hospital using contact/droplet precautions for MRSA isolation. Presented at the Tenth Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare and Epidemiology of America; March 5-9, 2000; Atlanta, GA. Abstract 200.Google Scholar
232.Sherertz, RJ, Reagan, DR, Hampton, KD, et al.A cloud adult: the Staphylococcus aureus-vaus interaction revisited. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:539–547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
233.Williams, RE. Epidemiology of airborne staphylococcal infection. Bacterial Rev 1966;30:660–674.Google Scholar
234.Mermel, L, Dempsey, J, Parenteau, S. An MRSA outbreak in a surgical intensive care unit: possible role of aerosol transmission from opened ventilator tubing. Presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 1-3, 2001; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Abstract 17:42.Google Scholar
235.Meester, M, Schultsz, C, Boeijen-Donkers, L, et al.Evidence for airborne transmission of methicillin-resistant S. aureus. Presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 1-3, 2001; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Abstract 36:46.Google Scholar
236.Bischoff, W, Bassetti, S, Bassetti-Wyss, B, et al.The cloud phenomenon' (CP): predictors of Staphylococcus aureus (SA) airborne dispersal associated with rhinovirus infection. Presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 1-3, 2001; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Abstract 100:60.Google Scholar
237.Shiomori, T, Miyamoto, H, Makishima, K. Significance of airborne transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an oto-laryngology-head and neck surgery unit. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2001;127:644–648.Google Scholar
238.Anonymous. Staphylococcus aureus resistant to vancomycin: United States, 2002. MMWR 2002;51:565–567.Google Scholar
239.Achong, M, Hauser, BA, Krusky, JL. Rational and irrational use of antibiotics in a Canadian teaching hospital. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1977;116:256.Google Scholar
240.Kunin, CM. The responsibility of the infectious disease community for the optimal use of antimicrobial agents. J Infect Dis 1985;151:388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
241.Maki, DG, Schuna, AA. A study of antimicrobial misuse in a university hospital. Am J Med Sci 1978;275:271.Google Scholar
242.Roberts, AW, Visconti, JA. The rational and irrational use of systemic antimicrobial drugs. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 1972;29:828.Google ScholarPubMed
243.Scheckler, WE, Bennett, JV. Antibiotic use in seven community hospitals. JAMA 1970;214:264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
244.Bamberger, DM, Dahl, SL. Impact of voluntary vs enforced compliance of third generation cephalosporin use in a teaching hospital. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:554–557.Google Scholar
245.Shah, SS, Sinkowitz-Cochran, , Keyserling, H, Jarvis, WR. Vancomycin use in pediatric cardiothoracic surgery patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:558–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
246.Shah, SS, Sinkowitz-Cochran, , Keyserling, H, Jarvis, WR. Vancomycin use in pediatric neurosurgery patients. Am J Infect Control 1999;27:482–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
247.Lawton, RM, Fridkin, SK, Gaynes, RP, McGowan, JE. Practices to improve antimicrobial use at 47 hospitals: the status of the 1997 SHEA/IDSA position paper recommendations. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:256–259.Google Scholar
248.Hopkins, HA, Sinkowitz-Cochran, RL, Rudin, BA, Keyserling, HL, Jarvis, WR. Vancomycin use in pediatric hematology-oncology patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:48–50.Google Scholar
249.Shales, DM, Gerding, DN, John, JF, et al.Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and Infectious Diseases Society of America Joint Committee on the Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistance: guidelines for the prevention of antimicrobial resistance in hospitals. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:584–599.Google Scholar
250.Forrest, ANix, DE, Ballow, CH, Goss, TF, Birmingham, MC, Schentag, JJ. Pharmacodynamics of intravenous ciprofloxacin in seriously ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993;37:1073–1081.Google Scholar
251.Monnet, DL. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and its relationship to antimicrobial use: possible implications for control. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:552–559.Google Scholar
252.Weber, SG, Gold, HS, Karchmer, AW, Hooper, DC, Carmeli, Y. Exposure to quinolones is a risk factor for methicillin-resistant (MRSA), but not for methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). Presented at the 42nd Annual General Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 27-30, 2002; San Francisco, CA. Abstract K-2070.Google Scholar
253.Dziekan, G, Hahn, A, Thune, K, et al.Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a teaching hospital: investigation of nosocomial transmission using a matched case-control study. J Hosp Infect 2000;46:263–270.Google Scholar
254.Harbarth, S, Harris, AD, Carmeli, Y, Samore, MH. Parallel analysis of individual and aggregated data on antibiotic exposure and resistance in gram-negative bacilli. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:1462–1468.Google Scholar
255.Hori, S, Sunley, R, Tami, A, Grundmann, H. The Nottingham Staphylococcus aureus population study: prevalence of MRSA among elderly in a university hospital. J Hosp Infect 2002;50:25–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
256.Campillo, B, Dupeyron, C, Richardet, JP. Epidemiology of hospital-acquired infections in cirrhotic patients: effect of carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and influence of previous antibiotic therapy and norfloxacin prophylaxis. Epidemiol Infect 2001;127:443–450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
257.Gruson, D, Hilbert, G, Vargas, F, et al.Rotation and restricted use of antibiotics in a medical intensive care unit: impact on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by antibiotic-resistant gram-negative bacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:837–843.Google Scholar
258.Landman, D, Chockalingam, M, Quale, JM. Reduction in the incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and ceftazidime-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae following changes in a hospital antibiotic formulary. Clin Infect Dis 1999;28:1062–1066.Google Scholar
259.Van der Auwera, P, Pensart, N, Korten, V, Murray, BE, Leclercq, R. Influence of oral glycopeptide on the fecal flora of human volunteers: selection of highly glycopeptide-resistant enterococci. J Infect Dis 1996;173:1129–1136.Google Scholar
260.Tucci, V, Haran, MA, Isenberg, H. Epidemiology and control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an adult and children's hospital. Am J Infect Control 1997;25:371–376.Google Scholar
261.Uttley, A, Collins, C, Naidoo, J, George, R. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Lancet 1988;1:57–58.Google Scholar
262.Anglim, AM, Klym, B, Byers, KE, Farr, BM. Effect of a vancomycin restriction policy on ordering practices during an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:1132–1136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
263.Shay, DK, Maloney, SA, Montecalvo, M, et al.Epidemiology and mortality risk of vancomycin-resistant enterococcal bloodstream infections. J Infect Dis 1995;172:993–1000.Google Scholar
264.Weinstein, JW, Roe, M, Towns, M, et al.Resistant enterococci: a prospective study of prevalence, incidence, and factors associated with colonization in a university hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:36–41.Google Scholar
265.Carmeli, Y, Eliopoulos, GM, Samore, MH. Antecedent treatment with different antibiotics as a risk for vancomycin resistant enterococcus. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:802–807.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
266.Lucas, GM, Lechtzin, N, Puryear, DW, Yau, LL, Moore, RD. Vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-susceptible enterococcal bacteremia: comparison of clinical features and outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:1127–1133.Google Scholar
267.Donskey, CJ, Hanrahan, JA, Hutton, RA, Rice, LB. Effect of parenteral antibiotic administration on the establishment of colonization with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in the mouse gastrointestinal tract. J Infect Dis 2000;181:1830–1833.Google Scholar
268.Bradley, SJ, Wilson, ALT, Allen, MC, Sher, HA, Goldstone, AH, Scott, GM. The control of hyperendemic glycopeptide-resistant Enterococcus spp. on a haematology unit by changing antibiotic usage, f Antimicrob Chemother 1999;43:261–266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
269.Fridkin, SK, Lawton, R, Edwards, JR, Tenover, FC, McGowan, JE, Gaynes, RP. Monitoring antimicrobial use and resistance: comparison with a national benchmark on reducing vancomycin use and vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:7.Google Scholar
270.Donskey, CJ, Hanrahan, JA, Hutton, RA, Rice, LB. Effect of parenteral antibiotic administration on persistence of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in the mouse gastrointestinal tract. J Infect Dis 1999;180:384–390.Google Scholar
271.Struelens, MJ, Ronveaux, O, Jans, B, Mertens, R, the Groupement pour le Depistage, ‘Etude et la Prevention des Infections Hospitalieres. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus epidemiology and control in Belgian hospitals, 1991 to 1995. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:503–508.Google Scholar
272.Karchmer, TB, Jernigan, JA, Durbin, BM, Simonton, BM, Farr, BM. Eradication of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) colonization with different regimens. Presented at the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 18-20, 1999; San Francisco, CA. Abstract 65:42.Google Scholar
273.Bartzokas, CA, Paton, JH, Gibson, MF, Graham, R, Mclaughlin, GA, Croton, RS. Control and eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a surgical unit. NEngl J Med 1984;10:255–259.Google Scholar
274.Tuffnell, DJ, Croton, RS, Hemingway, DM, Hartley, MN, Wake, PN, Garvey, RJP. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: the role of antisepsis in the control of an outbreak. J Hosp Infect 1987;10:255–259.Google Scholar
275.Boyce, JM, Opal, SM, Potter-Bynoe, G, Mederios, AA. Spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a hospital and after exposure to a health-care worker with chronic sinusitis. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:496–504.Google Scholar
276.Kluytmans, J, van Leeuwen, W, Goessens, W, et al.Food-initiated outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus analyzed by pheno-and genotyping. JAMA Microbiol 1995;33:1121–1128.Google Scholar
277.Lessing, MP, Jordens, JZ, Bowlwer, IC. When should health care workers be screened for methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus? J Hosp Infect 1997;35:320–321.Google Scholar
278.Doebbeling, BN, Breneman, DL, Neu, HC, et al.Elimination of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage in health care workers: analysis of six clinical trials with mupirocin calcium ointment. The Mupirocin Collaborative Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:466–474.Google Scholar
279.Doebbeling, BN, Regan, DR, Pfaller, MA, Houston, AK, Hollis, RJ, Wenzel, RP. Long term efficacy of intranasal mupirocin ointment: a prospective cohort study of Staphylococcus aureus carriage. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:1505–1508.Google Scholar
280.Regan, DR, Doebbeling, BN, Pfaller, MA, et al.Elimination of coincident Staphylococcus aureus nasal and hand carriage with intranasal application of mupirocin ointment: a prospective cohort study of Staphylococcus aureus carriage. Ann Intern Med 1991;114:101–106.Google Scholar
281.Perl, TM, Cullen, JJ, Wenzel, RP, et al.Intranasal mupirocin to prevent postoperative Staphylococcus aureus infections. N Engl J Med 2002;13:1871–1877.Google Scholar
282.Farr, BM. Mupirocin to prevent S. aureus infections. N Engl J Med 2002;13:1905–1906.Google Scholar
283.Harbarth, S, Dharan, S, Liassine, N, Herrault, P, Auckenthaler, R, Pittet, D. Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial to evaluate the efficacy of mupirocin for eradicating carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999;43:1412–1416.Google Scholar
284.Harbarth, S, Dharan, S, Liassine, N, Herrault, P, Auckenthaler, R, Pittet, D. Risk factors for persistent carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:1380–1385.Google Scholar
285.Vasquez, JE, Walker, ES, Franzus, BW, Overbay, BK, Regan, DR, Sarubbi, FA. The epidemiology of mupirocin resistance among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at a Veterans' Affairs hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:459–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
286.Miller, MA, Dascal, A, Portnory, J, Medelson, J. Development of mupirocin resistance among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus after widespread use of nasal mupirocin ointment. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:811–813.Google Scholar
287.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance: recommendations of the Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HIC-PAC). MMWR 1995;44:1–13.Google Scholar
288.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for handwashing and hospital environmental control. MMWR 1998;36(suppl):2S.Google Scholar
289.Spaulding, EH. Chemical disinfection of medical and surgical materials. In: Lawrence, CA, Block, SS, eds. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1968:517–531.Google Scholar
290.Rutala, W. APIC guidelines for selection and use of disinfectants. Am J Infect Control 1996;24:313–342.Google Scholar
291.Saurina, G, Landman, D, Quale, J. Activity of disinfectants against vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;18:345–347.Google Scholar
292.Rutala, W, Stiegei, M, Sarubbi, F, Weber, D. Susceptibility of antibiotic-susceptible and antibiotic-resistant hospital bacteria to disinfectants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:417–421.Google Scholar
293.Anderson, RL, Carr, JH, Bond, WW, Favero, MS. Susceptibility of vancomycin-resistant enterococci to environmental disinfectants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:195–199.Google Scholar
294.Byers, KE, Durbin, LJ, Simonton, BM, Anglim, AM, Adal, KA, Farr, BM. Disinfection of hospital rooms contaminated with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:261–264.Google Scholar
295.Rampling, A, Wiseman, S, Davis, L, et al.Evidence that hospital hygiene is important in the control of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Hosp Infect 2001;49:109–116.Google Scholar
296.Mangi, RJ, Andriole, VT. Contaminated stethoscopes: a potential source of nosocomial infections. Yale J Biol Med 1972;45:600–604.Google Scholar
297.Pittet, D, Safran, E, Harbarth, S, et al.Automatic alerts for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus surveillance and control: role of a hospital information system. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:496–502.Google Scholar
298.Wakefield, DS, Helms, CM, Massanari, RM, Mori, M, Pfaller, MA. Cost of nosocomial infection: relative contributions of laboratory, antibiotic, and per diem costs in serious Staphylococcus aureus infections. Am J Infect Control 1988;16:185–192.Google Scholar
299.Wakefield, DA, Pfaller, MA, Hammons, GT, Massanari, RM. Use of the appropriateness evaluation protocol for estimating the incremental costs associated with nosocomial infections. Med Care 1987;25:481–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
300.Arnow, PM, Quimosing, EM, Beach, M. Consequences of intravascular sepsis. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:778–784.Google Scholar
301.Rubin, RJ, Harrington, CA, Poon, A, Dietrich, K, Greene, JA, Moiduddin, A. The economic impact of Staphylococcus aureus infection in New York City hospitals. Emerg Infect Dis 1999;5:9–17.Google Scholar
302.Abramson, MA, Sexton, DJ. Nosocomial methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus primary bacteremia: at what costs? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:408–411.Google Scholar
303.Cheng, AF, French, GL. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in Hong Kong. J Hosp Infect 1988;12:91–101.Google Scholar
304.Stone, PW, Larson, E, Kawar, LN. A systematic audit or economic evidence linking nosocomial infections and infection control interventions: 1990-2000. Am J Infect Control 2002;30:145–152.Google Scholar
305.Kaye, KS, Engemann, JJ, Mozaffari, E, Carmeli, Y. Outcomes related to vancomycin resistant Enterococcus and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a comparison of the two types of control groups. Presented at the 42nd Annual General Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 27-30, 2002; San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
306.Stosor, V, Peterson, L, Postelnick, M, Noskin, G. Enterococcus faecium bacteremia: does vancomycin resistance make a difference? Arch Intern Med 1998;158:522–527.Google Scholar
307.Jernigan, JA, Hadziyannis, SC. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE) bacteremia (B) in severely neutropenic patients. Presented at the 36th Annual General Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 15-18, 1996; New Orleans, LA. Abstract J8:219.Google Scholar
308.Edmond, MB, Jones, RN, Pfaller, MA, Wallace, SE, Wenzel, RP. Multicenter surveillance for nosocomial enterococcal bacteremia: a comparison of vancomycin-sensitive vs vancomycin-resistant cases. Presented at the Sixth Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 21-23, 1996; Washington, DC. Abstract 17:18.Google Scholar
309.Lautenbach, E, Bilker, WB, Brennan, PJ. Enterococcal bacteremia: risk factors for vancomycin resistance and predictors of mortality. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:318–323.Google Scholar
310.Stroud, L, Edwards, J, Danzing, L, Culver, D, Gaynes, R. Risk factors for mortality associated with enterococcal bloodstream infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:576–580.Google Scholar
311.Newel, KA, Millis, JM, Arnow, PM, et al.Incidence and outcome of infection by vancomycin-resistant enterococcus following orthotopic liver transplantation. Transplant 1998;65:439–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
312.Bhavnani, SM, Drake, JA, Forrest, A, et al.A nationwide, multicenter, case-control study comparing risk factors, treatment, and outcome for vancomycin-resistant and -susceptible enterococcal bacteremia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000;36:145–158.Google Scholar
313.Song, X, Srinivisan, APlaut, D, Perl, TM. Effect of nosocomial vancomycin-resistant enterococcal bacteremia on mortality, length of stay, and cost. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003;24:251–256.Google Scholar
314.Karchmer, TB, Cage, EG, Durbin, LJ, Simonton, BM, Farr, BM. Cost effectiveness of active surveillance cultures for controlling methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). J Hosp Infect 2002;51:126–132.Google Scholar
315.Papia, G, Louie, M, Traila, A, Johnson, C, Collins, V, Simor, AE. Screening high-risk patients for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on admission to the hospital: is it cost effective? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:473–477.Google Scholar
316.Bronstein, M, Kaye, K, Sexton, D. Gown utilization as a measure of cost of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus screening. Presented at the 12th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 6-9, 2002; Salt Lake City, UT. Abstract: 47:51.Google Scholar
317.Lucet, J, Chevret, S, Durand-Zaleski, I, Chastang Cregnier, B. Prevalence and risk factors for carriage of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus at admission to the intensive care unit. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:181–188.Google Scholar
318.Karchmer, TB, Farr, BM. Presumptive isolation on admission of patients transferred from facilities with a high-prevalence of MRSA a cost analysis. Presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 1-3, 2001; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Abstract 38:46.Google Scholar
319.Fridken, SK, Hageman, J, McDougal, LK, et al.Epidemiological and microbiological characterization of infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin: United States 1997-2001. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:429–439.Google Scholar
320.Calfee, DP, Giannetta, E, Durbin, LJ, Farr, BM. The increasing prevalence of MRSA and VRE colonization among patients transferred from primary and secondary health care facilities. Presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 1-3, 2001; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Abstract 171.Google Scholar
321.Muto, CA, Cage, E, Durbin, LJ, Simonton, BM, Farr, BM. The utility of culturing patients on admission transferred from other hospitals or nursing homes for vancomycin resistant Enterococcus (VRE). Presented at the 35th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; November 12-15, 1998; Denver, CO. Abstract.Google Scholar
322.Muto, CAPatel-Brown, S, Krystofiak, S, et al.Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE): hospital-wide point prevalence study and epidemiologic description. Presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 1-3, 2001; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Abstract.Google Scholar
323.Silverblatt, FJ, Tibert, C, Mikolich, D, et al.Preventing the spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a long-term care facility. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000;48:1211–1215.Google Scholar
324.Salgado, C, Sheppe, S, Dill, J, Durbin, L, Farr, B. The sensitivity of MRSA follow-up cultures. Presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; April 1-3, 2001; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Abstract 40.Google Scholar
325.Manian, FA, Finkle, D, Zack, J, Meyer, L. Routine screening for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among patients newly admitted to an acute rehabilitation unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:516–519.Google Scholar
326.Larson, E, Killien, M. Factors influencing handwashing behavior of patient care personnel. Am J Infect Control 1982;10:93–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
327.Maki, DG. The use of antiseptics for handwashing by medical personnel. J Chemother 1989;1(suppl):3–11.Google Scholar
328.Massanari, RM, Hierholzer, W Jr. A crossover comparison of antiseptic soaps on nosocomial infection rates in intensive care units. Am J Infect Control 1984;12:247–248.Google Scholar
329.Doebbeling, BN, Stanley, GL, Sheetz, CT, et al.Comparative efficacy of alternative hand-washing agents in reducing nosocomial infections in intensive care units. N Engl J Med 1992;327:88–93.Google Scholar
330.Ehrenkranz, NJ, Alfonso, BC. Failure of bland soap handwash to prevent hand transfer of patient bacteria to urethral catheters. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12:654–662.Google Scholar
331.Larson, E. A casual link between handwashing and risk of infection? Examination of the evidence. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1988;9:28–36.Google Scholar
332.Larson, EL, Eke, PI, Laughon, BE. Efficacy of alcohol-based hand rinses under frequent-use conditions. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1986;30:542–544.Google Scholar
333.Larson, EL, Aiello, AE, Bastyr, J, et al.Assessment of two hand hygiene regimens for intensive care unit personnel. Crit Care Med 2001;29:944–951.Google Scholar
334.Boyce, JM. Scientific basis for handwashing with alcohol and other waterless antiseptic agents. In: Rutala, WA, ed. Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practices in Healthcare Facilities. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology; 2001:140–151.Google Scholar
335.Widmer, AF. Replace handwashing with use of a waterless alcohol hand rub? Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:136–143.Google Scholar
336.Maury, E, Alzieu, M, Baudei, JL, Haram, N. Availability of an alcohol solution can improve hand disinfection compliance in an intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:324–327.Google Scholar
337.Boyce, JM, Kelliher, S, Vallande, N. Skin irritation and dryness associated with two hand hygiene regimens: soap and water handwashing versus hand antisepsis with an alcoholic hand gel. Infect Control Hosp Epidemol 2000;21:442–448.Google Scholar
338.Bischoff, WE, Reynolds, TM, Sessler, CN, Edmond, MD, Wenzel, RP. Handwashing compliance by healthcare workers: the impact of introducing an accessible alcohol-based hand antiseptic. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1017–1021.Google Scholar
339.Walsh, B, Blakemore, PH, Drubu, YJ. The effect of handcream on the antibacterial activity of Chlorhexidine gluconate. J Hosp Infect 1987;9:30–33.Google Scholar
340.Berndt, U, Wigger-Alberti, W, Gabard, B, Eisner, P. Efficacy of a barrier cream and its vehicle as protective measures against occupational irritant contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 2000;42:77–80.Google Scholar
341.McCormick, RD, Buchman, TL, Maki, D. Double-blind, randomized trial of scheduled use of a novel barrier cream and an oil-containing lotion for protecting the hands of health care workers. Am J infect Control 2000;28:302–310.Google Scholar
342.Heeg, P. Does hand care ruin hand disinfection? J Hosp Infect 2001;48(suppl A):S37–S39.Google Scholar
343.Dharan, S, Hugonnet, S, Pittet, D. Evaluation of interference of a hand care cream with alcohol-based hand disinfection. Occup Environ Med 2001;49:81–84.Google Scholar
344.Mayer, JA, Dubbert, PM, Miller, M, Burkett, PA, Chapman, S. Increasing handwashing in an intensive care unit. Infect Control 1986;7:259–262.Google Scholar
345.Quale, J, Landman, D, Atwood, E, et al.Experience with a hospital-wide outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Am J Infect Control 1996;24:372–379.Google Scholar
346.Muto, CADurbin, LJ, Alexander, CH, Karchmer, TB, Farr, BM. Frequency of community acquired MRSA at a university hospital. Presented at the 35th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; September 13-16, 1997; San Francisco, CA. Abstract 347:135.Google Scholar
347.Harbarth, S, Samore, MH, Lichtenberg, D, Carmeli, Y. Prolonged antibiotic prophylaxis after cardiovascular surgery and its effect on surgical site infections and antimicrobial resistance. Circulation 2000;10:2916–2921.Google Scholar
348.Gross, R, Kinky, DE, Weiner, M, Morgan, AS, Gibson, GAFishman, NO. A randomized controlled trial of a comprehensive antimicrobial management program. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:87–88.Google Scholar
349.Gross, R, Morgan, AS, Kinky, DE, Weiner, M, Gibson, GA, Fishman, NO. Impact of a hospital-based antimicrobial management program on clinical and economic outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:289–295.Google Scholar
350.Evans, RS, Pestonik, SL, Classen, DC, et al.A computer-assisted management program for antibiotics and other anti-infective agents. N Engl J Med 1998;338:232–238.Google Scholar
351.May, AK, Melton, SM, McGwin, G, Cross, JM, Moser, SARue, LW. Reduction of vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections by limitation of broad-spectrum cephalosporin use in a trauma and burn intensive care unit. Shock 2000;14:259–264.Google Scholar
352.Smith, DW. Decreased antimicrobial resistance after changes in antibiotic use. Pharmacotherapy 1999;19:129S–132S.Google Scholar
353.Walker, ES, Vasquez, JE, Dula, R, Bullock, H, Sarubbi, FA. Mupirocin-resistant, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: does mupirocin remain effective? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003;24:342–346.Google Scholar