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Late Justice for Burundi

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 January 2008

Romana Schweiger
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Extract

Burundi, a small State in Eastern Africa, has been suffering a repetitive cycle of interethnic violence since its independence in 1962. Tensions were ongoing, but never reached the scale of the Rwandese massacres of 1994. The Burundian conflict thus received less international attention. Hardly any academic writing exists on human rights violations in Burundi.1 International efforts to counter impunity remained half-hearted.

Type
Shorter Articles, Comments and Notes
Information
International & Comparative Law Quarterly , Volume 55 , Issue 3 , July 2006 , pp. 653 - 671
Copyright
Copyright © British Institute of International and Comparative Law 2006

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References

1 Amongst the few is: Reyhan, PY ‘Conceptualizing Violence: Present and Future Developments in International Law: Panel II Adjudicating Violence: Problems Confronting International Law and Policy on War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: Genocidal Violence in Burundi: Should International Law Prohibit Domestic Humanitarian Intervention?’ (1997) 60 Albany L Rev 771, 776.Google Scholar

2 Report of the Secretary General on Burundi of 14 Mar 2006 (S/2006/163) para 73.

3 SC Res 1606, 20 June 2005.

4 Report of the Security Council Mission to Burundi on 13 and 14 Aug 1994 (S/1994/1039) para 9.

5 Report of the assessment mission on the establishment of an international judicial commission of inquiry for Burundi (Kalomoh report) is in S/2005/158 para 12.

6 Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi of 28 Aug 2000 (Arusha Peace Agreement), Protocol 1, Preamble and Art 1–4.

7 Final Report of the International Commission of Inquiry established by Security Council Resolution 1012 (1995), submitted on 23 July 1996 (S/1996/682) para 78.

8 Report of the Preparatory Fact-Finding Mission to Burundi to the Secretary General, by Martin Huslid/ Simeon Aké, 24 May 1994 (S/1995/157) (Huslid-Aké report) para 33.

9 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 35; see also Huslid-Aké report (n 8) para 35.

10 Kalomoh report (n 5) paras 36 and 37.

11 Report of the Security Council Mission to Burundi on 13 and 14 Aug 1994 ( (S/1994/1039) para 7.

12 Akhavan, P ‘Justice and Reconciliation in the Great Lakes Region of Africa: The Contribution of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda’ (1997) Duke J of Comp & Int'l L 325, 343.Google Scholar

13 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 20.

14 Below IV.B.

15 Both are available on: <http://www.usip.org/library/pa/burundi/pa_burundi.html>.

16 Conseil National pour la Défense de la Démocratie—Forces pour la Défense de la Démocratie; winning party of legislative elections in July 2005.

17 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 7 et seq. In summer 2005 the CNDD-FDD was elected in the legislative elections and Pierre Nkurunziza was elected as President.

18 The President of the Security Council has in March 2006 again expressed concern on the continuing violence of the FNL in Burundi, Statement by the President of the Security Council (S/PRST/2006/12), 23 Mar 2006.

19 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 13.

20 Its mandate was extended until 1 June 2004 by SC Res 1577, 1 Dec 2004; until 1 Dec 2005 by SC Res 1602, 31 May 2005; until 15 Jan 2006 by SC Res 1641, 30 Nov 2005; and until 1 July 2006 by SC Res 1650, 21 Dec 2005.

21 Letter from the Secretary General to the President of the Security Council, 11 Mar 2005 (S/2005/158).

22 The findings of the mission are compiled in Huslid-Aké report (n 8).

23 ibid para 195 et seq.

24 ibid para 203 (c).

25 Statement of the President of the Security Council of 29 March 1995 (S/PRST/1995/13). The report (Nikken report) see S/1995/631.

26 ibid para 15.

27 ibid para 27.

28 ibid para 63.

29 ibid para 31.

30 SC Res 1012, 28 Aug 1995; the report of the Commission of Inquiry (hereinafter: Commission of Inquiry's report) see S/1996/682.

31 ibid para 488.

32 ibid paras 483 and 492 et seq.

33 Below III.B.

34 See Meeting of the SC on 28 Aug 1996 (S/PV.3692) and on 30 Aug 1996 (S/PV.3695), in which SC Res 1072, 30 Aug 1996 was adopted.

35 See Request from the President of the Security Council (S/2004/72); the findings are compiled in the Kalomoh report (n 5).

36 SC Res 1606, 20 June 2005.

37 SC Res 1650, 21 Dec 2005 para 9.

38 Ralph Zacklin's statement in the SC Meeting on 15 June 2005 (S/PV.5203).

39 To the problem of delaying the establishment of an internationalized too long see: Taylor, RS ‘Better Later Than Never: Cambodia's Joint Tribunal’ in Stromseth, JE (ed) Accountability for Atrocities (Translational Publishers Inc Ardsley NY 2003) 237–70.Google Scholar

40 Arusha Peace Agreement, Protocol 1, Art 6 paras 1–8.

41 Report of the Secretary General on Burundi of 16 Mar 2004 (S/2004/210) para 31 et seq.

42 Report on the human rights situation in Burundi submitted by the independent expert, Akich Okola on 1 Feb 2005 (E/CN.4/2005/118), 57.

43 Loi N° 1/004 du 8 Mai 2003 portant répression du crime de génocide, des crimes contre l'humanité et des crimes de guerre. It is noteworthy that Burundi had acceded to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (GA Res 260 A (III), 9 Dec 1948 ) on 6 Jan 1997.

44 An example is that the chapeau of the Art 3 of Loi N°1/004 does still require discriminative elements for all crimes against humanity.

45 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 32 et seq.

46 Loi n°1/018 du 27 décembre 2004 portant missions, compétence, organisation et fonctionnement de la Commission Nationale pour la Vérité et la Réconciliation.

47 Report of the Secretary General on Burundi of 16 Mar 2004 (S/2004/210), paras 36 et seq; Second report of the Secretary General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi of 15 Nov 2004 (S/2004/902), para 43; Sixth report of the Secretary General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi of 14 Mar 2006 (S/2006/163) para 52.

48 See also Mensuel, Rapport ONUB, Juin 2005; Rapport Trimestriel Avril—Juin 2005.Google Scholar

49 First report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi of 25 Aug 2004 (S/2004/682) paras 45 et seq; Second report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi of 15 Nov 2004 (S/2004/902) para 38; Third report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi of 8 Mar 2005 (S/2005/149) para 52.

50 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 43 et seq.

51 ibid para 48; see also Commission of Inquiry report (n 30) para 492.

52 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 47. A similar finding that the population distrusts the impartiality of the courts is already contained in the Nikken report (n 25) para 33.

53 Fourth Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi, 19 May 2005 (S/2005/328), para 38.

54 Report of the Secretary General on Burundi of 16 Mar 2004 (S/2004/210) para 35.

55 SC Meeting on 15 June 2005 (S/PV.5203).

56 Art 1 ICTR Statute, attached to SC Res 955, 8 Nov 1994.

57 Statement by Bakuramutsa in the UN SC, 49th Session, 3453rd Meeting on 8 Nov 1994, UN Doc S/PV.3453.

58 The Huslid-Aké report (n 8) however underlines that the genocide in Rwanda did not have a tremendously destabilizing effect, see para 145 et seq.

59 P Akhavan (n 12) 343.

60 Commission of Inquiry's report (n 30) para 81 et seq for the interdependence of conflicts in Rwanda and Burundi.

61 Compare proposal to have to hold an international conference on Burundi and Rwanda in Huslid-Aké report (n 8) para 174.

62 Prosecutor v Akayesu (Trial Judgement) ICTR-96-4-T (2 Sept 1998) 103.

63 Commission of Inquiry's report (n 30) paras 490–9.

64 ibid paras 497–8.

65 UN Doc A/CONF.183/9 (17 July 1998) hereinafter Rome Statute.

66 Bougon, S ‘Jurisdiction Ratione Temporis’ in Cassese, A et al. (eds) The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (OUP Oxford 2002) 543.Google Scholar

67 Art 11 Rome Statute.

68 Art 22 Rome Statute.

69 See: <http://www.iccnow.org/countryinfo/africa/burundi.html>.

70 Art 12 para 3 Rome Statute. For a discussion of this provision see DJ Scheffer ‘How to Turn the Tide Using the Rome Statute's Temporal Jurisdiction’ (2004) 2 J of Int Crim Justice 26–34.

71 See ICC-Press Release 15 Feb 2005; <http://www.icc-cpi.int/press/pressreleases/93.html>

72 WA Schabas ‘Prosecution at the International Criminal Courts: Some Random Thoughts’ 14 Apr 2003 <http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/schabas.pdf>. When Schabas's paper was published, Burundi had not been party to the Rome Statute.

73 A similar argumentation can be found in Williams, S ‘The Cambodian Extraordinary Chamber—A Dangerous Precedent for International Justice?’ (2004) 53 ICLQ 227–45, 244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

74 Art 24 Rome Statute.

75 Below IV.B.

76 Arusha Peace Agreement, Protocol 1, Art 6 para 10.

77 ibid Art 6 para 11.

78 ibid Art 8 para 1 lit a.

79 ibid lit a and b.

80 ibid lit c; this provision has been nationally implemented through the Law on the national TRC (n 43).

81 Letter from the President of the Security Council to the Secretary-General, 26 Jan 2004 (S/2004/72).

82 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 31.

83 Arusha Peace Agreement, Protocol 1, Art 8 para 1 lit. c.

84 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 56 (a).

85 Above II.A.

86 Arusha Peace Agreement Art 6 lit 11.

87 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 58.

88 For an evaluation of the benefit of internationalized and international courts see: Knoops, GJA ‘International and Internationalized Criminal courts: the new face of international peace and security’ (2004) 4 International Criminal Law Review 527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

89 See SC Res 1315, 14 Aug 2000 and Agreement between the UN and the Government of Sierra Leone on the Establishment of the Special Court for Sierra Leone of 16 Jan 2002 <http://www.sc-sl.org/about.html>.

90 See: UNTAET Regulation 2000/15 of 6 June 2000 on the Establishment of Panels with Exclusive Jurisdiction over Serious Criminal Offences.

91 Draft Agreement between the UN and the Royal Government of Cambodia Concerning the Prosecution under Cambodian Law on Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea of 17 Mar 2003; approved by GA Res 57/228B, 13 May 2003.

92 UNMIK Regulation 2000/6 On the Appointment and Removal from Office of International Judges and Prosecutors.

93 For an in-depth analysis see the contributions in Romano, CPR et al. (eds) Internationalized Criminal Courts and Tribunals (OUP Oxford 2004), and inCrossRefGoogle ScholarStromseth, JE (ed) Accountability for Atrocities (Translational Publishers Inc Ardsley NY 2003).Google Scholar

94 Report of the Secretary General on The rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies, 23 Aug 2004 (S/2004/616) para 44.

95 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 60.

96 Jallow, H ‘The Legal Framework of the Special Court for Sierra Leone’ in Ambos, K and Othman, M (eds) New Approaches in International Criminal Justice: Kosovo, East Timor, Sierra Leone and Cambodia (edition iuscrim Freiburg 2003) 149–71.Google Scholar

97 De Bertodano, S ‘East Timor: Trials and Tribulations’ in Romano, CPR et al. (eds) Internationalized Criminal Courts and Tribunals (OUP Oxford 2004) 79–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

98 S Williams (n 73).

99 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 60.

100 ibid paras 62 and 63.

101 The rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies, Report of the Secretary General, 23 Aug 2004 (S/2004/616) para 10. See the inclusion in the Kalomoh report (n 5) para 62.

102 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 65.

103 Above III.A.

104 For East Timor see: S De Bertodano (n 97) 82 and 80; for Sierra Leone: see difficulties in obtaining the necessary cooperation for the arrest and surrender of Charles Taylor, <http://www.sc-sl.org/taylor-decisions.html>.

105 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 55 (a) and 62; accordingly the SC mandated the Secretary General to conduct negotiations on such an agreement SC Res 1606, 20 June 2005.

106 Note that uncertainties in the design of the relationship between the TRC and the internationalized chamber in the Kalomoh report (n 5) were criticized by the Minister of Justice of Burundi in SC Meeting on 15 June 2005 (S/PV.5203).

107 Schabas, WA ‘Joined Twins of Transitional Justice? The Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the Special Court’(2004) 2 J Int Crim Justice, 1082–99, 1088 et seq; possible tensions between the TRC and the internationalized chamber are listed in:CrossRefGoogle ScholarGoldmann, M ‘Returning Order to Postconflict Societies: State-Building, Constitution Making, and Justice: Does Peace Follow Justice or Vice Versa? Plans for Postconflict Justice in Burundi’ (2006) 30 The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, 137–52, 145.Google Scholar

108 Report of the Secretary General, The rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies, 23 Aug 2004 (S/2004/616) para 26.

109 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 67.

110 SC Meeting 15 June 2005 (S/PV.5203).

111 GA Res 58/284, 26 Apr 2004. For a comment on the inadequacy of funding for both the TRC and the SCSL in Sierra Leone see Schabas (n 107) 1089.

112 For East Timor see S De Bertodano (n 97) 86.

113 Kalomoh report (n 5) para 61. A broad temporal jurisdiction is also foreseen for the TRC, see ibid para 22 et seq.

114 This is a difference to the SCSL; see Statute of the special Court for Sierra Leone Art 5.

115 This point was made by the United States in SC Meeting on 15 June 2005 (S/PV.5203).

116 Information from UNDP Burundi <http://www.bi.undp.org/burundi/burundi.htm>. Visited on 2 Aug 2005.

117 This approach has been taken for the ICTY, see Art 1 ICTY Statute.

118 eg Mensuel, Rapport ONUB, Juin 200; Rapport Trimestriel Avril-Juin 2005.Google Scholar

119 Second report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi of 15 Nov 2004 (S/2004/902), para 47 et seq; Fourth Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi, 19 May 2005 (S/2005/328), para 39.

120 First report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Burundi of 25 Aug 2004 (S/2004/682), para 13.

121 eg Mensuel, Rapport ONUB, Juin 2005; Rapport Trimestriel Avril-Juin 2005.Google Scholar