Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T05:50:02.118Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Towards Dismantling Patriarchy in the Kibera Slum, Kenya: Narrative Accounts of Victims of Intimate Partner Violence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 July 2022

L. W. Kariuki  and
S. K. Jansen van Rensburg Open the ORCID record for S. K. Jansen van Rensburg [Opens in a new window]
L. W. Kariuki
Affiliation:
Ministry of Interior and Coordination of National Government, Nairobi, Kenya
S. K. Jansen van Rensburg*
Affiliation:
Department of Criminology and Security Science, University of South Africa, Tshwane, South Africa
*
*Corresponding Author: Professor S. K. Jansen van Rensburg, Department of Criminology and Security Science, University of South Africa, Tshwane, South Africa. E-mail: sissisk@unisa.ac.za
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Kibera is the largest informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya, and Africa’s largest urban informal settlement. It is a community plagued by poverty and unemployment. In response to the social disorganization common to informal settlements, criminal activity is rampant, particularly in assault and sexual violence cases. Patriarchal beliefs fuel power imbalances which consequently perpetuate violence. Kenyan societies tend to be traditionally patriarchal and characterized by male privilege and female subservience. This article explores the narrative accounts of female victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) to overcome patriarchy in Kibera, Kenya. Through a qualitative inquiry, 32 female victims of IPV were interviewed, and the data obtained were thematically analysed. The findings established that patriarchy is sustained in Kibera through control, dominance and violence. Additionally, salient partakers in advancing patriarchy are family structures and authorities. Moreover, strategies to dismantle patriarchy and IPV are proposed through these narrative accounts.

Abstracto

Abstracto

Kibera es el asentamiento informal más grande de Nairobi, Kenia, y el asentamiento informal urbano más grande de África. Es una comunidad plagada de pobreza y desempleo. En respuesta a la desorganización social común a los asentamientos informales, la actividad criminal prolifera, particularmente en casos de agresión y violencia sexual. Las creencias patriarcales alimentan los desequilibrios de poder que, en consecuencia, perpetúan la violencia. Las sociedades de Kenia tienden a ser tradicionalmente patriarcales y se caracterizan por el privilegio masculino y el servilismo femenino. Este artículo explora los relatos narrativos de mujeres víctimas de violencia de pareja íntima (VPI) para superar el patriarcado en Kibera, Kenia. A través de una encuesta cualitativa, treinta y dos mujeres víctimas de VPI fueron entrevistadas y los datos obtenidos fueron analizados temáticamente. Los hallazgos establecieron que el patriarcado se sustenta en Kibera a través del control, la dominación y la violencia. Los participantes destacados en el avance del patriarcado son las estructuras familiares y las autoridades. Además, a través de estos relatos narrativos se proponen estrategias para desmantelar el patriarcado y la violencia de pareja íntima.

Abstrait

Abstrait

Kibera est le plus grand établissement informel de Nairobi, au Kenya, et le plus grand établissement informel urbain d’Afrique. C’est une communauté en proie à la pauvreté et au chômage. En réponse à la désorganisation sociale commune aux établissements informels, l’activité criminelle est endémique, en particulier dans les affaires d’agression et de violence sexuelle. Les croyances patriarcales alimentent les déséquilibres de pouvoir qui, par conséquent, perpétuent la violence. Les sociétés kenyanes ont tendance à être traditionnellement patriarcales et caractérisées par le privilège masculin et l’asservissement féminin. Cet article explore les récits narratifs de femmes victimes de violence conjugale (IPV) pour surmonter le patriarcat à Kibera, au Kenya. A travers une enquête qualitative, trente-deux femmes victimes de IPV ont été interrogées, et les données obtenues ont été analysées thématiquement. Les résultats ont établi que le patriarcat est maintenu à Kibera par le contrôle, la domination et la violence. Les principaux acteurs de la promotion du patriarcat sont les structures familiales et les autorités. De plus, des stratégies pour démanteler le patriarcat et la violence conjugale sont proposées à travers des récits narratifs.

抽象的

抽象的

基贝拉是肯尼亚内罗毕最大的非正规住区，也是非洲最大的城市非正规住区。这是一个饱受贫困和失业困扰的社区。为应对非正规住区普遍存在的社会混乱，犯罪活动猖獗，尤其是在袭击和性暴力案件中。父权信仰助长了权力失衡，从而使暴力持续存在。肯尼亚社会传统上倾向于父权制，并以男性特权和女性屈从为特征。本文探讨了亲密伴侣暴力 (IPV) 女性受害者的叙述，以克服肯尼亚基贝拉的父权制。通过定性调查，采访了 32 名 IPV 女性受害，并对获得的数据进行了主题分析。调查结果表明，基贝拉的父权制通过控制、支配和暴力得以维持。此外，推进父权制的主要参与者是家庭结构和权威。此外，通过这些叙述性叙述提出了消除父权制和 IPV 的策略。

الملخص

الملخص

كيبيرا هي أكبر مستوطنة عشوائية في نيروبي ، كينيا ، وأكبر مستوطنة حضرية عشوائية في إفريقيا. إنه مجتمع يعاني من الفقر والبطالة. رداً على الفوضى الاجتماعية الشائعة في المستوطنات العشوائية ، يتفشى النشاط الإجرامي ، لا سيما في قضايا الاعتداء والعنف الجنسي. تؤجج المعتقدات الأبوية اختلالات القوة التي تؤدي بالتالي إلى استمرار العنف. تميل المجتمعات الكينية إلى أن تكون أبوية بشكل تقليدي وتتميز بامتياز الذكور وخضوع الإناث. يستكشف هذا المقال الروايات السردية لضحايا عنف الشريك الحميم (IPV) للتغلب على النظام الأبوي في كيبيرا ، كينيا. من خلال تحقيق نوعي ، تمت مقابلة 32 أنثى من ضحايا عنف الشريك الحميم ، وتم تحليل البيانات التي تم الحصول عليها بشكل موضوعي. أثبتت النتائج أن النظام الأبوي يستمر في كيبيرا من خلال السيطرة والهيمنة والعنف. بالإضافة إلى ذلك ، فإن الشركاء البارزين في تعزيز النظام الأبوي هم الهياكل والسلطات الأسرية. علاوة على ذلك ، يتم اقتراح استراتيجيات لتفكيك النظام الأبوي و IPV من خلال هذه الحسابات السردية.

Keywords

patriarchyviolenceintimate partner violenceslumsvictimscelos sexualespropiedad sexualfeminicidiohomicidio de pareja íntimapatriarcatviolenceviolence conjugalebidonvillesvictimes父权制，暴力，亲密伴侣暴力，贫民窟，受害者النظام الأبويالعنفعنف العشيرالعشوائياتالضحايا
Type
Article
Information
International Annals of Criminology , Volume 60 , Issue 1 , March 2022 , pp. 99 - 117
Copyright
© International Society of Criminology, 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abouelenin, Mariam. 2022. “Gender, Resources, and Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Egypt Before and After the Arab Spring.” Violence Against Women 28(2):347–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ahinkorah, Bright Opoku, Sekyi Dickson, Kwamena, and Seidu, Abdul-Aziz. 2018. “Women Decision-Making Capacity and Intimate Partner Violence Among Women in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Archives of Public Health 76:5.10.1186/s13690-018-0253-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akgul, Filiz. 2017. Patriarchal Theory Reconsidered. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akinola, Adeoye O. 2018. “Women, Culture and Africa’s Land Reform Agenda.” Frontiers in Psychology 9:2234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akinsulure-Smith, Adeyinka M., Chu, Tracy, Keatley, Eva, and Rasmussen, Andrew. 2013. “Intimate Partner Violence Among West African Immigrants.” Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 22(1):109–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, Kristin L. and Umberson, Debra. 2001. “Gendering Violence: Masculinity and Power in Men’s Accounts of Domestic Violence.” Gender & Society 15(3):358–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arroyo, Karla, Lundahl, Brad, Butters, Rob, Vanderloo, Mindy, and Wood, David S.. 2017. “Short-Term Interventions for Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 18(2):155–71.10.1177/1524838015602736CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bachman, R. and Schutt, R. K.. 2015. Fundamentals of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice, 3rd ed. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Bagai, Kelebonye and Faimau, Gabriel. 2021. “Botswana Print Media and the Representation of Female Victims of Intimate Partner Homicide: A Critical Discourse Analytical Approach.” African Journalism Studies 42(1):17–35.10.1080/23743670.2021.1884581CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandiera, Oriana, Buehren, Niklas, Burgess, Robin, Goldstein, Markus, Gulesci, Selim, Rasul, Imran, and Sulaiman, Munshi. 2020. “Women’s Empowerment in Action: Evidence from a Randomised Control Trial in Africa.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 12(1):210–59.Google Scholar
Bell, Kathryn M. and Naugle, Amy E.. 2008. “Intimate Partner Violence Theoretical Considerations: Moving Towards a Contextual Framework.” Clinical Psychology Review 28(7):1096–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bellair, Paul. 2017. “Social Disorganization Theory.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Criminology and Criminal Justice, edited by Pontell, H. N.. Oxford: Oxford University Press. July 27, 2017, retrieved April 26, 2022 (https://oxfordre.com/criminology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264079-e-253).Google Scholar
Bettman, Cathy. 2009. “Patriarchy: The Predominant Discourse and Fount of Domestic Violence.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy 30(1):15–28.10.1375/anft.30.1.15CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boden, Joseph M., Fergusson, David M., and John Horwood, L.. 2012. “Alcohol Misuse and Violent Behavior: Findings From a 30-Year Longitudinal Study.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 122(1–2):135–41.10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.09.023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braun, Virgina and Clarke, Victoria. 2006. “Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology.” Qualitative Research in Psychology 3(2):77–101.10.1191/1478088706qp063oaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterji, Sangeeta, Stern, Erin, Dunkle, Kristin, and Heise, Lori. 2020. “Community Activism as a Strategy to Reduce Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in Rural Rwanda: Results of a Community Randomised Trial.” Journal of Global Health 10(1):010406.10.7189/jogh.10.010406CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiang, Laura, Howard, Ashleigh, Gleckel, Jessie, Ogoti, Caren, Karlsson, Jonna, Hynes, Michelle, and Mwangi, Mary. 2018. “Cycle of Violence Among Young Kenyan Women: The Link Between Childhood Violence and Adult Physical Intimate Partner Violence in a Population-Based Survey.” Child Abuse & Neglect 84:45–52.10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.07.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chika, Ifemeje Sylvia. 2012. “Gender-Based Violence in Nigeria: A Socio-Legal Perspective. Research Note.” Indian Journal of Gender Studies 19(1):137–48.10.1177/097152151101900107CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coker, Ann L., Davis, Keith E., Arias, Ileana, Desai, Sujata, Sanderson, Maureen, Brandt, Heather M., and Smith, Paige H.. 2002. “Physical and Mental Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence for Men and Women.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 23(4):260–8.10.1016/S0749-3797(02)00514-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Copp, Jennifer E., Giordano, Peggy C., Manning, Wendy D., and Longmore, Monica A.. 2016. “Couple-Level Economic and Career Concerns and Intimate Partner Violence in Young Adulthood.” Journal of Marriage and Family 78(3):744–58.10.1111/jomf.12282CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunradi, Carol B., Todd, Michael, and Mair, Christina. 2015. “Discrepant Patterns of Heavy Drinking, Marijuana Use, and Smoking and Intimate Partner Violence: Results from the California Community Health Study of Couples.” Journal of Drug Education 45(2):73–95.10.1177/0047237915608450CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeKeseredy, Walter S. 2021. “Bringing Feminist Sociological Analyses of Patriarchy Back to the Forefront of the Study of Woman Abuse.” Violence Against Women 27(5):621–38.10.1177/1077801220958485CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dery, Isaac. 2021. “‘Give Her a Slap or Two … She Might Change’: Negotiating Masculinities Through Intimate Partner Violence Among Rural Ghanaian Men.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36(19-20):9670–90.10.1177/0886260519869066CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobash, R. Emerson and Dobash, Russell. 1979. Violence against Wives: A Case Against the Patriarchy. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Dubber, Markus Dirk. 2005. The Police Power: Patriarchy and the Foundations of American Government. New York: Columbia University Press.10.7312/dubb13206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Follingstad, Diane R. and DeHart, Dana D.. 2000. “Defining Psychological Abuse of Husbands Toward Wives: Contexts, Behaviors and Typologies.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15(9):891–920.10.1177/088626000015009001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, Naomi and Brickell, Katherine. 2019. “Sheltering from Domestic Violence: Women’s Experiences of Punitive Safety and Unfreedom in Cambodian Safe Shelters.” Gender, Place & Culture 26(1):111–27.10.1080/0966369X.2018.1557603CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harper, David and Thompson, Andrew R.. 2011. Qualitative Research Methods in Mental Health and Psychotherapy: A Guide for Students and Practitioners. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.10.1002/9781119973249CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heise, Lori L. 1998. “Violence Against Women: An Integrated, Ecological Framework.” Violence Against Women 4(3):262–90.10.1177/1077801298004003002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heise, Lori and Fulu, Emma. 2014. “What Works to Prevent Violence against Women and Girls? State of the Field of Violence against Women and Girls: What Do We Know and What Are the Knowledge Gaps?” Retrieved April 10, 2018 (https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/337603/What-know-what-knowledge-gaps-D.pdf).Google Scholar
Heise, Lori, Greene, Margaret E., Opper, Neisha, Stavropoulou, Maria, Harper, Caroline, Nascimento, Marcos, and Zewdie, Debrework. 2019. “Gender Inequality and Restrictive Gender Norms: Framing the Challenges to Health.” The Lancet 393:15–21.10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30652-XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hewitt, Ashley N., Beauregard, Eric, Andresen, Martin A., and Brantingham, Patricia L.. 2018. “Identifying the Nature of Risky Places for Sexual Crime: The Applicability of Crime Pattern and Social Disorganization Theories in a Canadian Context.” Journal of Criminal Justice 57:35–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hope, Kempe Ronald. 2019. “The Police Corruption ‘Crime Problem’ in Kenya.” Security Journal 32:85–101.10.1057/s41284-018-0149-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunnicutt, Gwen. 2009. “Varieties of Patriarchy and Violence Against Women: Resurrecting ‘Patriarchy’ as a Theoretical Tool.” Violence Against Women 15(5):553–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ince-Yenilmez, Meltem. 2020. “The Role of Socioeconomic Factors on Women’s Risk of Being Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence (epublication ahead of print version October 13, 2020).Google ScholarPubMed
Izugbara, Chimaraoke Otutubikey, Duru, Emmanuel J. C., and Dania, Peter O.. 2008. “Women and Male Partner-Dating Violence in Nigeria.” Indian Journal of Gender Studies 15(3):461–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jansen van Rensburg, Shandré K. 2021. “Doing Gender Well: Women’s Perceptions on Gender Equality and Career Progression in the South African Security Industry.” South African Journal of Industrial Psychology 47:a1815.Google Scholar
Kalunta-Crumpton, Anita. 2017. “Attitudes and Solutions Toward Intimate Partner Violence: Immigrant Nigerian Women Speak.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 17(1):3–21.10.1177/1748895816655842CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kambarami, Maureen. 2006. Femininity, Sexuality and Culture: Patriarchy and Female Subordination in Zimbabwe. Alice, EC, South Africa: Africa Regional Sexuality Resource Centre, University of Fort Hare. September 2016, retrieved April 26, 2022 (http://www.arsrc.org/downloads/uhsss/kmabarami.pdf).Google Scholar
Kariuki, Lydiah Wanjiru. 2021. “An Exploration of Alcohol Abuse as a Risk Factor for Intimate Partner Violence in Kibera, Kenya.” MA thesis (Criminology), University of South Africa. May 2021, retrieved April 26, 2022 (https://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/27552/dissertation_kariuki_ma%20%281%29.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y).Google Scholar
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 2019. Kenya Population and Housing Census (KPHC). Retrieved November 14, 2020 (https://kenya.opendataforafrica.org/msdpnbc/2019-kenya-population-and-housing-census-population-by-county-and-sub-county?county=1001880-limuru).Google Scholar
Kuuder, Conrad-Joseph Wuleka, Essel, Mariam, Husseini, Rikiatu, Yirbekyaa, Evelyn Kuusozume, Dzramedo, Bernard Edem, Halidu, Ramatu, Arowosafe, Catherine Fosulade, Poku, Getrude, Gyader, George, and Nutsugbodo, Ricky Yao. 2020. “Women Empowerment in Sirigu Through Ecotourism in the Kasena-Nankana East District of Ghana.” Gender and Behaviour 18(3):15934–48.Google Scholar
Lelaurain, Solveig, David Fonte, Jean-Christophe Giger, Guignard, Séverin, and Lo Monaco, Grégory. 2018. “Legitimizing Intimate Partner Violence: The Role of Romantic Love and the Mediating Effect of Patriarchal Ideologies.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36(13–14):6351–68.10.1177/0886260518818427CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez, J. M. and Gillespie, L. K.. 2017. “Social Disorganization Theory.” Pp. 1–5 in The Encyclopedia of Juvenile Delinquency and Justice, edited by Christopher, J. Schreck, Lieber, Michael, Miller, Holly Ventura, and Welch, Kelly. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Makayoto, Lyndah A., Omolo, Jared, Kamweya, Abel M., Harder, Valarie S., and Mutai, Joseph. 2013. “Prevalence and Associated Factors of Intimate Partner Violence Among Pregnant Women Attending Kisumu District Hospital, Kenya.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 17(3):441–7.10.1007/s10995-012-1015-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mangal, S. K. and Mangal, Shubhra. 2013. Research Methodology in Behavioural Sciences. Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.Google Scholar
Mathews, Shanaaz, Jewkes, Rachel, and Abrahams, Naeemah. 2015. “‘So Now I’m the Man’: Intimate Partner Femicide and its Interconnections with Expressions of Masculinities in South Africa.” British Journal of Criminology 55(1):107–24.10.1093/bjc/azu076CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinley, M. T. 2020. “Predictors of Attitudes Toward Intimate Partner Violence Among African Immigrants: The Moderating Effects of Religiosity and Patriarchal Beliefs.” PhD dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.Google Scholar
Memiah, Peter, Ah Mu, Tristi, Prevot, Kourtney, Cook, Courtney K., Mwangi, Michelle M., Mwangi, E. Wairimu, Owuor, Kevin, and Biadgilign, Sibhatu. 2021. “The Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence, Associated Risk Factors, and Other Moderating Effects: Findings From the Kenya National Health Demographic Survey.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36(11–12):5297–317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mengo, Cecilia, Sharma, Bonita B., and Beaujolais, Brieanne. 2021. “Informal and Formal Systems of Care for Women Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence in Kenya.” Health Care for Women International (epublication ahead of print version March 15, 2021).Google Scholar
Merrill, Jennifer E., Wardell, Jeffrey D., and Read, Jennifer P.. 2014. “Drinking Motives in the Prospective Prediction of Unique Alcohol-Related Consequences in College Students.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 75(1):93–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Min, Hye Young, Lee, Jung Min, and Kim, Yoonjung. 2020. “An Integrative Literature Review on Intimate Partner Violence against Women in South Korea.” Korean Journal of Women Health Nursing 26(4):260–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mpondo, Feziwe, Ruiter, Robert A. C., van den Borne, Bart, and Reddy, Priscilla S.. 2019. “Intimate Partner Violence and its Association with Self-Determination Needs and Gender-Power Constructs Among Rural South African Women.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 34(14):2975–95.10.1177/0886260516664316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mukamana, Jeanette Iman’ishimwe, Machakanja, Pamela, and Kofi Adjei, Nicholas. 2020. “Trends in Prevalence and Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence against Women in Zimbabwe, 2005–2015.” BMC International Health and Human Rights 20:2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Crime Research Centre. 2014. Prevalence of Violent Crime in Kenya. Nairobi: National Crime Research Centre.Google Scholar
National Police Service. 2018. Crime Statistics. Retrieved October 20, 2021 (https://www.saps.gov.za/services/crimestats.php).Google Scholar
Nwoke, Joel O. and Nwosu, Frederick O.. 2020. “Theoretical Antecedents to Sub-Saharan African Immigrants Spousal Abuse and Domestic Violence.” Journal of Functional Education 3(2):28–46.Google Scholar
Nybergh, Lotta, Enander, Viveka, and Krantz, Gunilla. 2016. “Theoretical Considerations on Men’s Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence: An Interview-Based Study.” Journal of Family Violence 31(2):191–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obwanda, Grace. 2014. “Factors that Lead to Violence against Women in Kibra’s Laini Saba, Nairobi City County.” MA Dissertation, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, KenyaGoogle Scholar
Odok, Godwin Etta. 2020. “Disruption of Patriarchy in Northern Islamic Nigeria.” Gender, Place & Culture 27(12):1663–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ozaki, Reiko and Otis, Melanie D.. 2017. “Gender Equality, Patriarchal Cultural Norms, and Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence: Comparison of Male University Students in Asian and European Cultural Contexts.” Violence Against Women 23(9):1076–99.10.1177/1077801216654575CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peltzer, K., Davids, A., and Njuho, P.. 2011. “Alcohol Use and Problem Drinking in South Africa: Findings from a National Population-Based Survey.” African Journal of Psychiatry 14(1):30–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinto, Lavinia A., Sullivan, Eric L., Rosenbaum, Alan, Wyngarden, Nicole, Umhau, John C., Miller, Mark W., and Taft, Casey T.. 2010. “Biological Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration.” Aggression and Violent Behavior 15(5):387–98.10.1016/j.avb.2010.07.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piscitelli, Anthony and Doherty, Sean. 2019. “The Social Disorganization of Intimate Partner Violence.” Journal of Community Safety and Well-Being 4(2):37–41.10.35502/jcswb.94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Razack, Sherene. 1995. “Domestic Violence As Gender Persecution: Policing the Borders of Nation, Race, and Gender.” Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 8:48–88.Google Scholar
Rollins, Boyd C. and Bahr, Stephen J.. 1976. “A Theory of Power Relationships in Marriage.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 38(4):619–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sampson, Robert J. 2019. “Neighbourhood Effects and Beyond: Explaining the Paradoxes of Inequality in the Changing American Metropolis.” Urban Studies 56(1):3–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sampson, Robert J., Wilson, William Julius, and Katz, Hanna. 2018. “Reassessing ‘Toward a Theory of Race, Crime, and Urban Inequality’: Enduring and New Challenges in 21st Century America.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 15(1):13–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanger, Sonam and Kacker, Priyanka. 2020. “Women Empowerment to Reduce Crime Against Women.” Pp. 59–66 in Women Empowerment – Awakening of a New Era, edited by Rahman, Tazyn. Ghaziabad: Empyreal.Google Scholar
Shaw, C. R. and McKay, H. D.. 1942. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Statcounter. 2021. Social Media Stats in Kenya: January 2021. Retrieved February 1, 2021 (https://gs.statcounter.com/social-media-stats/all/kenya).Google Scholar
Tarzia, L., Cornelio, R., Forsdike, K., and Hegarty, K.. 2018. “Women’s Experiences Receiving Support Online for Intimate Partner Violence: How Does It Compare to Face-To-Face Support from a Health Professional?” Interacting with Computers 30(5):433–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, David T., Riedel, Elena, Kobeissi, Loulou Hassan, Karyotaki, Eirini, Garcia-Moreno, Claudia, Say, Lale, and Cuijpers, Pim. 2020. “Psychosocial Interventions for Intimate Partner Violence in Low and Middle Income Countries: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials.” Journal of Global Health 10(1):010409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. 2020. Gender-Based Violence in Emergencies. Retrieved October 25, 2020 (https://www.unicef.org/protection/gender-based-violence-in-emergencies).Google Scholar
Von Fintel, Dieter and Fourie, Johan. 2019. “The Great Divergence in South Africa: Population and Wealth Dynamics Over Two Centuries.” Journal of Comparative Economics 47(4):759–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vyas, Seema and Watts, Charlotte. 2009. “How Does Economic Empowerment Affect Women’s Risk of Intimate Partner Violence in Low and Middle Income Countries? A Systematic Review of Published Evidence.” Journal of International Deviance 21(5):577–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warner, Barbara D. 2006. “The Role of Attenuated Culture in Social Disorganisation Theory.” Criminology 41(1):73–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization. 2010. Responding to Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Violence against Women: WHO Clinical and Policy Guidelines. Retrieved April 10, 2021 (https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/85240/9789241548595_eng.pdf;jsessionid=496C168DCBD3E5BC61F202C9BF145F46?sequence=1).Google Scholar
World Health Organization. 2013. Global and Regional Estimates of Violence against Women: Prevalence and Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence and Non-Partner Sexual Violence. Retrieved April 10, 2018 (http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/85239/9789241564625_eng.pdf;jsessionid=59C584FDB6D71EDAAA208EE98308C926?sequence=1).Google Scholar
World Health Organization. 2021. Violence Against Women. Retrieved April 26, 2022 (https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women).Google Scholar
Zaman, Anis, Kautz, Henry, Silenzio, Vincent, Hoque, Md. Ehsan, Nichols-Hadeed, Corey, and Cerulli, Catherine. 2021. “Discovering Intimate Partner Violence from Web Search History.” Smart Health 19(1):100161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar