INTRODUCTION
Across the globe, airports are regarded as essential infrastructure needing protection. One of the major goals of an airport, as encouraged by the regulatory bodies and evoked through public expectation, is safety (Quilty Reference Quilty2019). However, a public environment, such as an airport, is vulnerable to crime (Feijoo-Fernández, Halty, and Sotoca-Plaza Reference Feijoo-Fernández, Halty and Sotoca-Plaza2023). Criminality associated with airports includes, but is not limited to, unlawful acts against civil aviation, smuggling, theft, human trafficking and terrorism. Exacerbating the problem further is that unlawful activity often occurs in public areas in airports (Feijoo-Fernández et al. Reference Feijoo-Fernández, Halty and Sotoca-Plaza2023).
Crime and criminal behaviour are ongoing, evolving problems facing airports throughout the world (Feijoo-Fernández et al. Reference Feijoo-Fernández, Halty and Sotoca-Plaza2023; Marteache Reference Marteache2018; Wood and Gardiner Reference Wood and Gardiner2019). In the United Kingdom, crimes that take place at airports range from burglary, possession of weapons and robbery to drug-related offences, terrorism, and violent and sexual offences (Fowler Reference Fowler2021). Since the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States of America (USA), airports have faced increased scrutiny and, as a response, increased protective measures (Weseka and Rikhotso Reference Weseka and Rikhotso2021). Africa also encounters violent terrorist activity particularly in Lake Chad (Boko Jaram), the Sahel region (al Mourabitoun), and in Kenya and Uganda (al Shabaab). Thus, there is a demand for research in aviation security, especially concerning South African airports.
The Oliver Reginald Tambo International Airport (ORTIA) is Africa’s biggest and busiest airport, servicing approximately 19 million passengers annually. Thus, it serves more than 50% of South Africa’s air-travelling passengers. This National Key Point Footnote 1 is situated in the heart of South Africa’s commercial and industrial hub, Kempton Park, and has excellent road infrastructure linking it to the national road network (South African History Online 2021). Furthermore, it has an annual passenger capacity of 28 million (Airports Company South Africa 2021). Consequently, this colossal economic infrastructure is vulnerable to various security breaches.
In South Africa, violence is often associated with contact and economic crimes as well as the manifestations of crimes regardless of socio-economic status (Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC) 2020). OSAC produces annual security reports, with specific reference to travel advisories, in collaboration with the US Embassies in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg. Criminal activities in airports include, but are not limited to, theft of money and bags, drug smuggling and terrorist attacks. Commonly reported crimes that take place at ORTIA are the theft of unattended baggage, baggage pilferage and associated robberies (Overseas Security Advisory Council 2020). For instance, a perpetrator will follow a passenger to his or her hotel and use a weapon to rob the victim. As organized crime syndicates are rife within ORTIA, the South African Police Service (SAPS) has made the public aware of potential victimization (South African Police Service 2015). There are various measures in place to limit baggage tampering. Considering these security breaches, travellers, as well as family and friends doing pick-ups at the airport, are continuously encouraged to be alert and vigilant (Brophy Reference Brophy2016).
Tourism is a key component of a healthy economy. In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 130.1 billion rands to the gross domestic product and an estimated 4.5% of total employment in South Africa (Statistics South Africa 2018). Therefore, safety and security are important for developing and sustaining tourism in South Africa (Seabra et al. Reference Seabra, Dolnicar, Abrantes and Kastenholz2013). For this purpose, the present paper is informed by the perceptions of crime by security professionals employed at ORTIA to work towards sustainable solutions.
The paper is structured as follows: the contextualization of aviation security; methodology; discussion of findings; and concludes with proposed strategies towards sustainable solutions.
CONTEXTUALIZING AVIATION SECURITY AT ORTIA
ORTIA is South Africa’s primary gateway airport located in Johannesburg, Gauteng. The airport’s location resides outside the boundaries of the metropolitan area of Johannesburg and falls within the municipality of Ekurhuleni. Ekurhuleni is one of the country’s newest metropolitan municipalities and is still under-researched (Rogerson Reference Rogerson2018). However, the airport is vulnerable to ongoing criminal activities. According to Lubbe and Vermooten (Reference Lubbe and Vermooten2021), safety and security are basic conditions for tourism. However, studies have reported that crime is a serious threat to safety and security in South African tourism (Linda and Nzama Reference Linda and Nzama2020; Malleka, Booyens, and Hoogendoorn Reference Malleka, Booyens and Hoogendoorn2022; Senoamadi Reference Senoamadi2022). Thus, the need for strategic crime prevention and intervention strategies arises.
Aviation security entails the safeguarding of civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference. The objective is achieved by a combination of human and material resources (Debyser Reference Debyser2022). Even though initiatives have been implemented to prevent criminal activity at ORTIA, reports of criminal activity continue to surface. The airport is internationally recognized for the highest number of mishandled luggage. In February 2017 at ORTIA, criminals, posing as SAPS agents, targeted a cargo plane and stole more than R20 million in foreign currency. Although the suspects were taken into custody and the heist’s cars were seized, the case is still open. Evidence suggests that insider knowledge was provided to commit the heist (Bateman Reference Bateman2017). In 2022, 11 suspects were apprehended for attempted robbery at the airport’s cargo section. Moreover, the smuggling of drugs in and out of the country is an enduring problem for the airport (The Citizen 2022). In addition, ORTIA is globally declared a major trafficking hub (Cotterell Reference Cotterell2023).
Despite news reports of criminal activity of ORTIA, underreported and unrecorded offences may occur. Van Heerden and Minnaar (Reference Van Heerden and Minnaar2016) explain that, in terms of the nature and extent of crime at ORTIA, they submitted a request to the SAPS for access to police dockets pertaining to drug mules apprehended at ORTIA. The researchers could not access the dockets despite several attempts and permission granted by the SAPS. The major reasons provided were that all people detained were classified as having drugs in their possession, therefore the SAPS could not produce dockets exclusively for drug mules. As a result, the researchers were unable to identify convicted individuals for correctional services interviews. Moreover, SAPS officials may be involved in criminal activity. A three-year investigation into corruption claims at ORTIA resulted in the detention of 23 police officers on crimes ranging from drug selling to theft and racketeering (Independent Online 2020).
METHODOLOGY
The goal of this paper is to investigate the perceptions of security professionals working at ORTIA on crime at the airport. The study used a quantitative research methodology, in that standardized procedures were used to collect numerical data. It is used to answer questions about the relationship among measured variables. In this way, the phenomenon under study can be explained and controlled for future purposes. Thereafter, statistical procedures are applied to analyse and make deductions from the collected data. The intention is to establish, confirm or validate relationships and to develop generalizations. Quantitative research uses a form of statistical analysis of the data and makes use of a minimum sample size (Bertram and Christiansen Reference Bertram and Christiansen2015; Creswell and Creswell Reference Creswell and David Creswell2018). Moreover, the study is explorative and descriptive. A non-experimental and randomized cross-sectional research design was used (Fouché Reference Fouché, Fouché, Strydom and Roestenburg2021).
Probability sampling is founded on randomization while non-probability sampling is done in the absence of randomization. In probability sampling, every individual in the demarcated population has an equal chance of being included in the sample (Aidley Reference Aidley2018). Furthermore, simple random sampling is a type of probability sampling where everyone in a population has the same opportunity to be chosen to take part in the study (Bertram and Christiansen Reference Bertram and Christiansen2015; Strydom Reference Strydom, Fouché, Strydom and Roestenburg2021). The authors received a list of names of the security staff personnel at ORTIA and used random sampling to select the participants. During the time the data were collected, there were 276 security personnel employed at ORTIA. Through randomized sampling, 138 security personnel were invited to take part in the study; however, a total of 100 participants contributed to the study and yielded a representative percentage of 36% (Strydom Reference Strydom, Fouché, Strydom and Roestenburg2021). Data were collected through online self-administered questionnaires from security personnel employed at ORTIA. The advantages of these questionnaires are that they save time, are relatively cheap, and can be completed with ease by the participants. The participants were given a link to the online self-administered questionnaire to complete in their own time. Data were collected over six months. The participants were prompted weekly to complete the questionnaire. The first author provided his contact details and was available in case any problems were experienced.
The raw data were collected and transcribed into Microsoft Excel format to generate charts and frequencies. Frequency distributions were used to summarize and display the collected data in tabular form. It also allowed for easier description, comprehension, interpretation and use of the synthesized information (Bartley and Hashemi Reference Bartley, Hashemi, Fouché, Strydom and Roestenburg2021). Descriptive analysis was used to analyse and interpret the empirical findings (Roestenburg Reference Roestenburg, Fouché, Strydom and Roestenburg2021). Furthermore, the study was ethically approved by the University of South Africa (UNISA) and permission from the airport to conduct the study was granted.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
In all, 100 participants from the ORTIA security department were included in this study. Males comprised 51% of the sample, while women made up 49%. All participants are registered through the Private Security Industry Regulation Authority (PSiRA). Most participants (76%) identified themselves as security officers and 16% as security managers. Job titles besides security officer or manager include aviation security compliance officer, chief control officer, security instructor, security supervisor, senior claims specialist and surveillance analyst. The participants reported varied work experience; however, the most common number of years of work experience reported was 5–10 years (27%) and 16–20 years (25%), respectively. Thus, it is evident that the participants were well-informed and suitable to enlighten this paper’s findings and recommendations.
The paper explores various aspects of criminality at ORTIA as informed and experienced by the participants.
Crime at ORTIA
Of the participants, 88% (n = 88) had witnessed a crime at ORTIA. This indicates the high prevalence of crime that takes place at the airport if 88% of the participants had witnessed a crime. Although there are no official statistics of crimes that have taken place at ORTIA, numerous newspaper articles detail various crimes at the airport (Adonis Reference Adonis2022; Maphanga Reference Maphanga2022; Ntshidi Reference Ntshidi2020; Rall Reference Rall2021). Recently, it was highlighted that the safety and security of passengers, airport community, airport service providers and the public at ORTIA had declined, cultivating in a rise of criminal occurrences (Parliamentary Monitoring Group 2017). A summary of incidents between the years 2016 and 2017 include, but are not limited to, robbery, hijacking, cash-in-transit heists and murder. Moreover, issues such as corruption and collusion, a lack of command and control, inadequate resourcing of government agencies, limited commitment on the part of government agencies and little to no implementation of sustainable measures were raised. In addition, poor roadway management, insufficient tactical intelligence, and unsuccessful investigations and prosecutions were highlighted (Parliamentary Monitoring Group 2017).
Theft, automated teller machine (ATM) crimes and robbery were listed as the most crimes witnessed (see Figure 1). The participants, who were witnesses of crime, also experienced secondary victimization that negatively affected the employees who witnessed such crimes. The victim perceives secondary victimization as a further violation of their legal rights or entitlements and has a negative societal reaction (Corteen Reference Corteen, Corteen, Morley, Taylor and Turner2016; Hall Reference Hall and Hall2017). Most of the participants (87%) responded that they reported the crime(s). This shows that most of the participants adhere to reporting policies to curb crime. However, non-compliance with reporting crime at ORTIA contributes to underreported crime and inaccurate statistics, and can ultimately undermine prevention and intervention strategies. The participants (72%) reported the crime to their supervisors, followed by their managers, the SAPS and colleagues. These reporting procedures allow for clear guidelines and increase vigilance and crime awareness. Most participants (90%) confirmed that action was taken against the crimes. Actions ranged from arrests, cases being opened with the SAPS and an investigation pursued. Through the participants’ responses, a chain of reporting was established. Crimes were reported to the manager/supervisor, airport management and the SAPS – reiterating the chain of command.
Figure 1. Crimes witnessed by the participants. Source: Panyapanya (Reference Panyapanya2023).
Participants were cautioned about the sensitive nature of the questions regarding crime victimization. Anonymity was emphasized and reiterated before the participants were asked questions pertaining to crime victimization. A minority of participants (11 %) experienced victimization of crime at the airport. Those who experienced crime victimization at work reported incidents of theft including the theft of baggage, mobile phones, laptops, wallets and money. The paradox of the security guard profession is that the very personnel who are entrusted with protection and safeguarding put their own safety at risk (Provan, Rae, and Dekker Reference Provan, Rae and Dekker2019).
Insider Security Information
Participants were asked if they had ever been approached to divulge insider security information about the airport. Only 3% reported that they had been approached for such information. These participants revealed that the nature of the information requested included: smuggling foreigners into the country; the effectiveness of closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems; the methods used to search people; and the effectiveness of the airport’s security measures. All participants said they did not supply the information and thus were not paid. This finding exposes the vulnerability of security personnel as targets to be used for exploitative and criminal activities. Jeong and Zo (Reference Jeong and Zo2021) confirm that insider threats jeopardize safety and security. Insider risk is an ongoing vulnerability in civil aviation. Airport employees such as contract workers, government employees, maintenance and cleaning staff, vendors and security employees are at risk of being vulnerable to blackmail. This is especially true when employees with families and close dependants are targeted. For example, in Kansas (USA), an employee with detailed security intelligence planned to ignite a vehicle full of explosives on the airport’s tarmac. Moreover, in Louisiana (USA), a drug smuggling syndicate was exposed that involved airline employees (International Civil Aviation Organization 2015). PricewaterhouseCoopers (2018) conducted a security survey and found that employees are the main source of security breaches followed by ex-employees. Moreover, insiders were likely to share sensitive organizational information for financial incentives or as an act of retaliation (Jeong and Zo Reference Jeong and Zo2021).
Arrest and Conviction
Participants were asked about arrest and conviction. Of the participants, 99 (99%) said that they had not been arrested or convicted, while one participant (1%) reported that they had been arrested and convicted. Although further details were requested, the participant did not disclose any more information. To maintain PSiRA membership, an individual needs to have no criminal record for at least 10 years. Grades are not renewed but membership for security officials must be renewed every 24 months (Private Security Industry Regulation Authority 2021).
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS
The paper’s findings indicate that to work successfully towards sustainable solutions in the prevention of crime at ORTIA, the following aspects need to be realized.
Security Plan
In terms of recommendations specifically for security management at ORTIA, a customized security plan needs to be reviewed and implemented by the security personnel working at the airport. The importance of developing and implementing a security plan will assist in recognizing and mitigating risks and vulnerabilities. As risks are threats that have not yet materialized, two main processes must be adhered to. First, risks need to be identified and then the procedures and resources must be established (Lynch Reference Lynch2022; Meyer, Mikes, and Kaplan Reference Meyer, Mikes and Kaplan2021). Even though most of the participants indicated that the airport has a security plan, 10% indicated that they were not aware of the visual displays thereof. This can be linked to the implementation and awareness of the security plan.
A security plan begins with an outline of the status of the infrastructure that is to be secured which includes a critical assessment of the current plan and the following important aspects: threat management; site security; technical operations; and support. Moreover, relevant role-players’ perspectives must be incorporated to understand the organization’s culture (Lynch Reference Lynch2022). Organizational culture affects the satisfaction of employee performance (Paais and Pattiruhu Reference Paais and Pattiruhu2020). During this stage, the security’s mission, vision and outcomes should be established (Lynch Reference Lynch2022). The threat landscape is demarcated by the organization’s operations, environment, service delivery and clientele. Once this threat landscape is determined, an intelligence programme can be compiled inclusive of social media and various surveillance systems as well as the collaboration of the SAPS and intelligence departments. There should be continuous surveillance of key assets as the world changes. In this way, the security plan reflects relevant and ever-changing threats (Lynch Reference Lynch2022). Furthermore, Wood and Raj (Reference Wood and Raj2021) maintain that airports must focus their security strategies on legislative and policy mandates.
Business continuity is vital in a security plan. Thus, a security plan should consider all possible crisis events or disasters that may take place. Subsequently, a business continuity plan should be comprehensively compiled for any event (Lynch Reference Lynch2022). Considering the COVID-19 pandemic, Serrano and Kazda (Reference Serrano and Kazda2020) emphasize the importance of a business continuity plan specifically for pandemics. Plans are futile unless they are correctly executed. The execution of the security plan should be done in line with the budget. This stage involves ongoing training of security personnel, keeping them informed about the security plan, and equipping them with the skills to implement it (Lynch Reference Lynch2022). Moussaid, Tkiouat, and Hlyal (Reference Moussaid, Tkiouat and Hlyal2020) argue that continuous training impacts the overall performance of an organization.
Crime Prevention Strategies Specific to ORTIA
Research indicates that junior-level employees are often the first responders to encounter an organization’s biggest risks and vulnerabilities (Meyer et al. Reference Meyer, Mikes and Kaplan2021). Thus, the participants’ views on ORTIA can minimize criminal threats. Participants were asked what can be done to maximize crime prevention at ORTIA. Their contributions were used to inform the paper’s recommendations on crime prevention and interventions.
Crime Prevention
The participants emphasized the importance of physical security in the prevention of crime which included increasing the number of X-ray machines and improving access control and the visibility of advanced security technology systems. Bongiovanni and Newton (Reference Bongiovanni and Newton2018) found in their organizational vulnerability assessment of international airports that physical security proved to be a weakness in the safety and security of airports, which highlights the need for continuous review and implementation of security measures.
The participants raised the significance of collaboration between airport security management and the SAPS to reduce criminal activities at ORTIA. Geldenhuys (Reference Geldenhuys2018) accentuates the value of a partnership between the private security industry and the SAPS as they share similar goals inclusive of upholding law and order, crime prevention, and safety and security. This partnership can be realized through the sharing of information, resources and operational activities. Regarding security personnel, a specialized tactical unit is proposed for high-risk areas. Security personnel employed at ORTIA must be PSiRA registered even though risky and deviant behaviour could be committed after registration. Thus, thorough background checks and rigorous continuous vetting are encouraged.
Improvement of Safety and Security
The participants provided an array of responses regarding the improvement of safety and security at ORTIA. These responses were categorized as follows:
Crime Awareness
Awareness of crime and reporting of crime incidences act as deterrence in crime prevention. A solution-centric crime awareness online application can serve as a tool for raising crime awareness. This application should include the following features: a centralized chat box; awareness-related information; ease of reporting a crime; and frequently asked questions (Srivastava, Srivastava, and Arora Reference Srivastava, Srivastava and Arora2020). Such an application will assist in raising crime awareness and reporting of crime.
Access Control and Improved Security Technology
Access control should include activity-centric control. Gupta and Sandhu (Reference Gupta and Sandhu2021) argue that safety and efficiency are improved when intelligent, integrated cyber-physical systems are implemented. Systems are interlinked as devices are dependent on each other to ensure efficiency. Thus, access control systems and security technology initiatives should be reviewed, and holistic technology services should be implemented.
Increased Manpower
Insufficient manpower within the security department has negative implications. Factors to consider when increasing manpower are past breaches, frequency and visibility, crime types and patterns, size, and the number of security personnel versus passengers and staff members (Conway et al. Reference Conway, Emery, Pompeii and Vellani2019).
Training
The continuous training of employees is beneficial to any organization. The benefits include increased productivity and quality of work as well as staff cohesion. Furthermore, training updates and informs staff members on changes in policies, laws and cutting-edge technologies (Andriotis Reference Andriotis2016). Gwara (Reference Gwara2021) motivates for the continuous training of security personnel through accredited training institutions. Continuous training should be implemented throughout security staff members’ employment. Training should benefit other staff members regarding issues surrounding safety and security. Changes in policy and legislation must be included in training initiatives so that staff members are updated. As technology evolves, these advancements should be part of security personnel training. Furthermore, continuous training creates a working culture in that training is a norm and not an exception (Andriotis Reference Andriotis2016).
Insider information is also a vulnerability. Training should be centred on these issues as experienced by the participants. Training should also include aviation security, security awareness, life skills training, anger management, conflict resolution, safety management, security technology and response to security incidents.
Crime and Community Policing
The involvement of community policing at ORTIA can assist in the prevention of crime. If South African communities are invested in keeping the airport safe, they will be proactive in the safety and security process and assist in identifying and responding to potential criminal activities. Community policing can assist in problem resolution, as community members together with the SAPS and ORTIA’s security personnel can identify crime-related problems and provide solutions to them. Working together with authorities, communities can strengthen mutual trust and decrease their fear of crime (Geoghegan Reference Geoghegan2019). In this way, communities are also empowered to reduce crime. Moreover, participation in local projects can reduce crime. Local projects should be included in the safety and security activities at the airport. These include, but are not limited to, awareness campaigns, road shows, media and talk shows, and the distribution of safety tips through print and social media (Mahler Reference Mahler2015).
CONCLUSION
ORTIA is a National Key Point exposed to many criminal vulnerabilities and thus in need of protection. A strong economy depends heavily on tourism. As a result, safety and security are crucial for South Africa’s sustainable tourism industry. Through a representative quantitative inquiry, 100 security professionals working at ORTIA gave insight into crimes taking place at the airport. The results showed that theft, mishandled baggage, crimes involving ATMs, burglaries, robberies, illegal immigration and drug smuggling were the most problematic crimes reported to have occurred at ORTIA. Most participants have also seen a crime occur at the airport. According to the participants’ knowledge, effective strategies for crime prevention and intervention were recommended. The paper’s findings are limited by restricted in-depth information provided by the participants. However, the quantitative nature of the study did not necessitate detailed contributions. Thus, future research should consider a qualitative inquiry into security professionals’ perceptions of crime at ORTIA.
Acknowledgements
This paper was funded by a Women in Research grant from the University of South Africa (UNISA).
Shandré Kim Jansen van Rensburg is an Associate Professor in the Department of Criminology and Security Science at the University of South Africa (UNISA). His fields of interest include criminology, victimology, safety and security.
Michael Panyapanya obtained his MA (Criminal Justice) in the Department of Criminology and Security Science at the University of South Africa (UNISA) under the supervision of Professor S. K. Jansen van Rensburg. He has experience working at ORTIA in the security department and is currently a lecturer at UNISA.
