Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T05:44:23.980Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

LAND REGISTRATION AND LOCAL SOCIETY IN QING CHINA: TAXATION AND PROPERTY RIGHTS IN MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY GUANGDONG

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 June 2011

Kentaro Matsubara
Kentaro Matsubara
Affiliation:
University of Tokyo. E-mail k-matsu@j.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper explores the relationship between local lineage social structure and the workings of tax registration in Qing China, through a case study providing documentary evidence of a level of precision that enables us to go beyond the findings of previous scholarship. In the first instance, it reconstructs a tax dispute where implications of the registration system come into play, based on rare records made by the taxpayers themselves. In doing so, it shows that (a) the registered “acreage” of land was in fact unrelated to any actual land whatsoever; (b) tax collection ceased to be able to rely on knowledge of the terrain and had to depend on knowing the social groups that could be held responsible for payment, while the cohesion and internal differentiation of these social groups was (in turn) underpinned by tax collection and registration; and (c) since the registration system did not permit the government to keep track of actual landholding, property rights had to be secured at the local community level. In conclusion, an attempt is made to speculate on the extent to which this specific case contributes to our knowledge of local social structure, the interactions between localities and the government, and the property regime of Qing China overall.

Keywords

Chinese lineageslocal societytaxationland registrationland ownership
Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 8 , Issue 2 , July 2011 , pp. 163 - 187
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Chongxiu Xiangshan XianzhiChongxiu Xiangshan Xianzhi 重修香山縣志 (“Revised Gazetteer of Xiangshan county”), 5 (1879) edition.Google Scholar
Muxue juyaoMuxue juyao 幕學擧要. Author Wan Weihan 萬維翰. Text of 1770 reprinted in Guanjing 官經. Harbin: Harbin Chubanshe, 2007.Google Scholar
Qingxian cuntuQingxian cuntu 青縣村圖 (1875–1880), kept at the Institute for Advanced Studies on Asia Library, University of Tokyo.Google Scholar
Shinkoku GyōseihōShinkoku Gyōseihō 清國行政法 (“Administrative Law of the Qing State”) by the Rinji Taiwan Kyūkan Chōsakai 臨時臺灣舊慣調査會 (1915); reprint from Taipei: Nantian Shuju, 1989.Google Scholar
Xiangshanxian Aomen Zhaoshi wenshuXiangshanxian Aomen Zhaoshi wenshu 香山縣澳門趙氏文書 (“Books and papers of the Zhao surname of Macao, Xiangshan county”), in the possession of Professor David Faure, Chinese University of Hong Kong, including the following documents: Abridged Family Records (Jiasheng luechao 家乘畧鈔), Family genealogy.Google Scholar
“Booklet of Tax and Land” (“Shui mu ce” 稅畝册).Google Scholar
Draft Letter to Bijiang, 1852.Google Scholar
“Sheet A: Report to Lineage Members”, 1856.Google Scholar
Copy of Letter from Lu Biru, 1859.Google Scholar
Fuyi jingzheng zhi da ye 賦役經政之大也.Google Scholar
Niqing zhengchi chaiyi jibi chengxian quanan 擬請整飭差役積弊呈縣全案.Google Scholar
Zhengdun chabi yian (xucheng gexianchenggao gexianbinggao gaoshi) quanlu 整頓差弊一案(續呈各憲呈稿各憲稟稿告示)全錄.Google Scholar
Banno 1973 Banno, Masataka 坂野正高. Kindai Chūgoku seiji-gaikō-shi 近代中国政治外交史 (“Modern Chinese Political and Diplomatic History”). Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1973.Google Scholar
Chun 2002 Chun, Allen. Unstructuring Chinese Society: The Fictions of Colonial Practice and the Changing Realities of “Land” in the New Territories of Hong Kong. London: Routledge, 2002.Google Scholar
Duara 1988 Duara, Prasenjit. Culture Power and the State: Rural North China 1900–1942. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Faure 1986 Faure, David. The Structure of Chinese Rural Society: Lineage and Village in the Eastern New Territories, Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Faure 1989 Faure, David. “The Lineage as a Cultural Invention: The Case of the Pearl River Delta.” Modern China 15:1 (1989), pp. 4–36.Google Scholar
Faure 1992 Faure, David. “The Written and the Unwritten: The Political Agenda of the Written Genealogy.” In Jinshi jiazu yu zhengzhi bijiao lishi bijiao lishi lunwen ji 近世家族與政治比較歴史論文集 (“Family Process and Political Process in Modern Chinese History”), ed. Yanjiuyuan, ZhongyangYanjiusuo, Jindaishi 中央研究院近代史研究所, pp. 259–96. Taipei: Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, 1992.Google Scholar
Faure 2007 Faure, David. Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Ho 1959 Ho, Ping-ti. Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959.Google Scholar
Hsiao 1960 Hsaio, Kung-chuan. Rural China – Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1960.Google Scholar
Katayama 1982a Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Shinmatsu Kantonshō Shukō Deruta no zukō-hyō to sore o meguru shomondai: zeiryō, koseki, dōzoku 清末広東省珠江デルタの図甲表とそれをめぐる諸問題―税糧･戸籍･同族―” (“Some Problems Concerning the T'u-chia Charts in the Pearl River Delta in Kwangtung Province during the Late Ch'ing Period: Land Tax, Household Register and Lineage”). Shigaku Zasshi 史学雑誌 91:4 (1982), pp. 42–81.Google Scholar
Katayama 1982b Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Shinmatsu Kantonshō Shukō Deruta no zukōsei ni tsuite: zeiryō, koseki, dōzoku (“On the T'u-chia System in the Pearl River Delta in Kwangtung Province during the Late Ch'ing Period: Land Tax, Household Register and Lineage”) 清末広東省珠江デルタの圖甲制について―税糧・戸籍・同族―.” Tōyō Gakuhō 東洋学報 The Journal of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko) 63:3–4 (1982b), pp. 1–34.Google Scholar
Katayama 1983 Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Shinmatsu Kantonshō Shukō Deruta ni okeru zukōsei no sho-mujun to sono kaikaku (Nankaiken): zeiryō, koseki, dōzoku 清末広東省珠江デルタにおける図甲制の諸矛盾とその改革（南海県）―税糧・戸籍・同族―” (“Reform of Contradictions in the Tujia System in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong Province during the Late Qing Period (Nanhai county): Land Tax, Household Register and Lineage”). Kainan Shigaku 海南史学 21 (1983), pp. 1–25.Google Scholar
Katayama 1984 Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Shinmatsu Kantonshō Shukō Deruta ni okeru zukōsei no sho-mujun to sono kaikaku (Juntoku-ken, Kōzanken) – zeiryō, koseki, dōzoku 清末広東省珠江デルタにおける図甲制の諸矛盾とその改革（順徳県・香山県）―税糧・戸籍・同族―” (“Reform in the Contradictions of the Tujia System in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong Province during the Late Qing Period (Shunde county and Xiangshan county): Land Tax, Household Register and Lineage”). Chūgoku Kindaishi Kenkyū 中国近代史研究 4 (1984), pp. 1–47.Google Scholar
Katayama 2005 Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Mindai Shukō Deruta no Sōzoku, Zokufu, Koseki: Ichi-sōzoku o meguru Gensetsu to Shijitsu 明代珠江デルタの宗族・族譜・戸籍―一宗族をめぐる言説と史実―” (“Lineage, Genealogical Book and Household Register in the Pearl River Delta during the Ming Period: Discourse and Historical Evidence on Lineage”). In Sō-Min Sōzoku no Kenkyū 宋－明宗族の研究 (“Chinese Lineage during the Song–Ming Period”), eds. Toru, Inoue 井上徹 and Takatoshi, Endō 遠藤隆俊, pp. 459–86. Tokyo: Kyūko Shoin, 2005.Google Scholar
Kishimoto 1993 Kishimoto Mio, 岸本美緒. “Minshin Keiyaku Monjo 明清契約文書” (“Contract Deeds of the Ming and Qing”). In Chūgoku Hōseishi: Kihon Shiryō no Kenkyū 中国法制史：基本資料の研究 (“Chinese Legal History: The Study of Basic Materials”), ed. Shiga Shūzō 滋賀秀三. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Kuribayashi 1971 Kuribayashi Nobuo, 栗林宣夫. Rikōsei no kenkyū 里甲制の研究 (“Study of the lijia System”). Tokyo: Bunri Shoin, 1971.Google Scholar
Liu 1988 Liu Zhiwei, 刘志伟. “Ming Qing Zhujiang Sanjiaozhou diqu zhizhong ‘hu’ de yanbian 明清珠江三角洲地区之中‘户’的衍变” (“Changes in the hu of the Pearl River Delta Area during the Ming–Qing period”). Zhongshan Daxue Xuebao 中山大学学报 3 (1988), pp. 64–73.Google Scholar
Liu 1991 Liu Zhiwei, 刘志伟. “Qingdai Guangdong diqu tujiazhi zhong de ‘zong-hu’ yu ‘zi-hu’” 清代广东地区图甲制中的‘总户’与‘子户’ (“The zonghu and zihu in the tujia system of Guangdong in the Qing period”). Zhongguo shehui jingjishi yanjiu 中国社会经济史研究 2 (1991), pp. 36–43; p. 28.Google Scholar
Liu 1997 Liu Zhiwei, 刘志伟. Zai guojia yu shehui zhi jian: Ming Qing Guangdong lijia fuyi zhidu yanjiu 在国家与社会之间——明清广东里甲赋役制度研究 (“In-between State and Society: The Institutions of Lijia and Taxation in Ming and Qing Guangdong”). Guangdong: Zhongshan Daxue Chubanshe, 1997.Google Scholar
Lockhart 1898 Lockhart, J. H. Stewart. “Report on the Extension of the Colony of Hong Kong”, 8 October 1898, Correspondence Respecting the Extension of the Boundaries of the Colony (Eastern no. 66, Colonial Office).Google Scholar
Momose 1941 Momose Hiroshi, 百瀬弘. “Shinmatsu Chokureishō no sonzu sanshu ni tsuite 清末直隷省の村圖三種について” (“Three Types of Village Charts in Late Qing Zhili Province”). In Katō Hakushi kanreki kinen tōyōshi shūsetsu 加藤博士還歷記念東洋史集説. Tokyo: Fuzanbō, 1941.Google Scholar
Niida 1991 Niida Noboru, 仁井田陞. Hotei Chūgoku Hōseishi Kenkyū: Tochihō, Torihikihō 補訂 中国法制史研究 土地法・取引法 (“A Study in Chinese Legal History: Law of Land and Law of Transactions”). Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, 1961; revised edition 1991.Google Scholar
Nishikawa 1983 and 1984 Nishikawa Kikuko 西川喜久子. “‘Juntoku hokumon Ra-shi zokufu’ kō jō ge 『順徳北門羅氏族譜』考上･下” (“Consideration of the Luo surname genealogy of Beimen, Shunde county, Parts 1 and 2”). Hokuriku shigaku 北陸史学 32 (1983), pp. 1–22; 33 (1984), pp. 21–39.Google Scholar
Oyama 1991 Oyama Masaaki, 小山正明. Min-Shin shakai-keizaishi kenkyū 明清社会経済史研究 (“Studies in Ming–Qing Socio-economic History”). Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Palmer 1987 Palmer, Michael. “The Surface-Subsoil Form of Divided Ownership in Late Imperial China: Some Examples from the New Territories of Hong Kong.” Modern Asian Studies 21:1 (1987), pp. 1–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pittis and Henders 1998 Pittis, Donald and Henders, Susan J., eds. Macao: Mysterious Decay and Romance. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
“Report on the New Territory for the Year 1900” “Report on the New Territory for the Year 1900.” Hong Kong Government Gazette, 17 August 1901, pp. 1390–97.Google Scholar
Segawa 1996 Segawa Masahisa, 瀬川昌久. Zokufu: Kanan Kanzoku no sōzoku, fūsui, ijū. 族譜：華南漢族の宗族・風水・移住 (“The Written Genealogy: Lineage, Geomancy and Migration of the Han People of South China”). Tokyo: Fūkyōsha, 1996.Google Scholar
Shiga 1967 Shiga Shūzō, 滋賀秀三. Chūgoku Kazokuhō no genri 中国家族法の原理 (“Principles of Chinese Family Law”). Tokyo: Sōbunsha, 1967.Google Scholar
Shiga 1984 Shiga Shūzō, 滋賀秀三. Shindai Chūgoku no hō to saiban 清代中国の法と裁判 (“Law and Justice in Qing China”). Tokyo: Sōbunsha, 1984.Google Scholar
Szonyi 2002 Szonyi, Michael. Practicing Kinship: Lineage and Descent in Late Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakeman 1966 Wakeman, Frederic Jr. Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China, 1839–1861. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966.Google Scholar
Wang 1973a Wang, Yeh-chien. Land Taxation in Imperial China, 1750–1911. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang 1973b Wang, Yeh-chien. An Estimate of the Land-tax Collection in China, 1753 and 1908. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1973.Google Scholar
Zelin 1984 Zelin, Madeleine. The Magistrate's Tael: Rationalizing Fiscal Reform in Eighteenth-Century Ch'ing China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.Google Scholar
Chongxiu Xiangshan XianzhiChongxiu Xiangshan Xianzhi 重修香山縣志 (“Revised Gazetteer of Xiangshan county”), 5 (1879) edition.Google Scholar
Muxue juyaoMuxue juyao 幕學擧要. Author Wan Weihan 萬維翰. Text of 1770 reprinted in Guanjing 官經. Harbin: Harbin Chubanshe, 2007.Google Scholar
Qingxian cuntuQingxian cuntu 青縣村圖 (1875–1880), kept at the Institute for Advanced Studies on Asia Library, University of Tokyo.Google Scholar
Shinkoku GyōseihōShinkoku Gyōseihō 清國行政法 (“Administrative Law of the Qing State”) by the Rinji Taiwan Kyūkan Chōsakai 臨時臺灣舊慣調査會 (1915); reprint from Taipei: Nantian Shuju, 1989.Google Scholar
Xiangshanxian Aomen Zhaoshi wenshuXiangshanxian Aomen Zhaoshi wenshu 香山縣澳門趙氏文書 (“Books and papers of the Zhao surname of Macao, Xiangshan county”), in the possession of Professor David Faure, Chinese University of Hong Kong, including the following documents: Abridged Family Records (Jiasheng luechao 家乘畧鈔), Family genealogy.Google Scholar
“Booklet of Tax and Land” (“Shui mu ce” 稅畝册).Google Scholar
Draft Letter to Bijiang, 1852.Google Scholar
“Sheet A: Report to Lineage Members”, 1856.Google Scholar
Copy of Letter from Lu Biru, 1859.Google Scholar
Fuyi jingzheng zhi da ye 賦役經政之大也.Google Scholar
Niqing zhengchi chaiyi jibi chengxian quanan 擬請整飭差役積弊呈縣全案.Google Scholar
Zhengdun chabi yian (xucheng gexianchenggao gexianbinggao gaoshi) quanlu 整頓差弊一案(續呈各憲呈稿各憲稟稿告示)全錄.Google Scholar
Banno 1973 Banno, Masataka 坂野正高. Kindai Chūgoku seiji-gaikō-shi 近代中国政治外交史 (“Modern Chinese Political and Diplomatic History”). Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1973.Google Scholar
Chun 2002 Chun, Allen. Unstructuring Chinese Society: The Fictions of Colonial Practice and the Changing Realities of “Land” in the New Territories of Hong Kong. London: Routledge, 2002.Google Scholar
Duara 1988 Duara, Prasenjit. Culture Power and the State: Rural North China 1900–1942. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Faure 1986 Faure, David. The Structure of Chinese Rural Society: Lineage and Village in the Eastern New Territories, Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Faure 1989 Faure, David. “The Lineage as a Cultural Invention: The Case of the Pearl River Delta.” Modern China 15:1 (1989), pp. 4–36.Google Scholar
Faure 1992 Faure, David. “The Written and the Unwritten: The Political Agenda of the Written Genealogy.” In Jinshi jiazu yu zhengzhi bijiao lishi bijiao lishi lunwen ji 近世家族與政治比較歴史論文集 (“Family Process and Political Process in Modern Chinese History”), ed. Yanjiuyuan, ZhongyangYanjiusuo, Jindaishi 中央研究院近代史研究所, pp. 259–96. Taipei: Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, 1992.Google Scholar
Faure 2007 Faure, David. Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Ho 1959 Ho, Ping-ti. Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959.Google Scholar
Hsiao 1960 Hsaio, Kung-chuan. Rural China – Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1960.Google Scholar
Katayama 1982a Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Shinmatsu Kantonshō Shukō Deruta no zukō-hyō to sore o meguru shomondai: zeiryō, koseki, dōzoku 清末広東省珠江デルタの図甲表とそれをめぐる諸問題―税糧･戸籍･同族―” (“Some Problems Concerning the T'u-chia Charts in the Pearl River Delta in Kwangtung Province during the Late Ch'ing Period: Land Tax, Household Register and Lineage”). Shigaku Zasshi 史学雑誌 91:4 (1982), pp. 42–81.Google Scholar
Katayama 1982b Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Shinmatsu Kantonshō Shukō Deruta no zukōsei ni tsuite: zeiryō, koseki, dōzoku (“On the T'u-chia System in the Pearl River Delta in Kwangtung Province during the Late Ch'ing Period: Land Tax, Household Register and Lineage”) 清末広東省珠江デルタの圖甲制について―税糧・戸籍・同族―.” Tōyō Gakuhō 東洋学報 The Journal of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko) 63:3–4 (1982b), pp. 1–34.Google Scholar
Katayama 1983 Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Shinmatsu Kantonshō Shukō Deruta ni okeru zukōsei no sho-mujun to sono kaikaku (Nankaiken): zeiryō, koseki, dōzoku 清末広東省珠江デルタにおける図甲制の諸矛盾とその改革（南海県）―税糧・戸籍・同族―” (“Reform of Contradictions in the Tujia System in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong Province during the Late Qing Period (Nanhai county): Land Tax, Household Register and Lineage”). Kainan Shigaku 海南史学 21 (1983), pp. 1–25.Google Scholar
Katayama 1984 Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Shinmatsu Kantonshō Shukō Deruta ni okeru zukōsei no sho-mujun to sono kaikaku (Juntoku-ken, Kōzanken) – zeiryō, koseki, dōzoku 清末広東省珠江デルタにおける図甲制の諸矛盾とその改革（順徳県・香山県）―税糧・戸籍・同族―” (“Reform in the Contradictions of the Tujia System in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong Province during the Late Qing Period (Shunde county and Xiangshan county): Land Tax, Household Register and Lineage”). Chūgoku Kindaishi Kenkyū 中国近代史研究 4 (1984), pp. 1–47.Google Scholar
Katayama 2005 Katayama Tsuyoshi, 片山剛. “Mindai Shukō Deruta no Sōzoku, Zokufu, Koseki: Ichi-sōzoku o meguru Gensetsu to Shijitsu 明代珠江デルタの宗族・族譜・戸籍―一宗族をめぐる言説と史実―” (“Lineage, Genealogical Book and Household Register in the Pearl River Delta during the Ming Period: Discourse and Historical Evidence on Lineage”). In Sō-Min Sōzoku no Kenkyū 宋－明宗族の研究 (“Chinese Lineage during the Song–Ming Period”), eds. Toru, Inoue 井上徹 and Takatoshi, Endō 遠藤隆俊, pp. 459–86. Tokyo: Kyūko Shoin, 2005.Google Scholar
Kishimoto 1993 Kishimoto Mio, 岸本美緒. “Minshin Keiyaku Monjo 明清契約文書” (“Contract Deeds of the Ming and Qing”). In Chūgoku Hōseishi: Kihon Shiryō no Kenkyū 中国法制史：基本資料の研究 (“Chinese Legal History: The Study of Basic Materials”), ed. Shiga Shūzō 滋賀秀三. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Kuribayashi 1971 Kuribayashi Nobuo, 栗林宣夫. Rikōsei no kenkyū 里甲制の研究 (“Study of the lijia System”). Tokyo: Bunri Shoin, 1971.Google Scholar
Liu 1988 Liu Zhiwei, 刘志伟. “Ming Qing Zhujiang Sanjiaozhou diqu zhizhong ‘hu’ de yanbian 明清珠江三角洲地区之中‘户’的衍变” (“Changes in the hu of the Pearl River Delta Area during the Ming–Qing period”). Zhongshan Daxue Xuebao 中山大学学报 3 (1988), pp. 64–73.Google Scholar
Liu 1991 Liu Zhiwei, 刘志伟. “Qingdai Guangdong diqu tujiazhi zhong de ‘zong-hu’ yu ‘zi-hu’” 清代广东地区图甲制中的‘总户’与‘子户’ (“The zonghu and zihu in the tujia system of Guangdong in the Qing period”). Zhongguo shehui jingjishi yanjiu 中国社会经济史研究 2 (1991), pp. 36–43; p. 28.Google Scholar
Liu 1997 Liu Zhiwei, 刘志伟. Zai guojia yu shehui zhi jian: Ming Qing Guangdong lijia fuyi zhidu yanjiu 在国家与社会之间——明清广东里甲赋役制度研究 (“In-between State and Society: The Institutions of Lijia and Taxation in Ming and Qing Guangdong”). Guangdong: Zhongshan Daxue Chubanshe, 1997.Google Scholar
Lockhart 1898 Lockhart, J. H. Stewart. “Report on the Extension of the Colony of Hong Kong”, 8 October 1898, Correspondence Respecting the Extension of the Boundaries of the Colony (Eastern no. 66, Colonial Office).Google Scholar
Momose 1941 Momose Hiroshi, 百瀬弘. “Shinmatsu Chokureishō no sonzu sanshu ni tsuite 清末直隷省の村圖三種について” (“Three Types of Village Charts in Late Qing Zhili Province”). In Katō Hakushi kanreki kinen tōyōshi shūsetsu 加藤博士還歷記念東洋史集説. Tokyo: Fuzanbō, 1941.Google Scholar
Niida 1991 Niida Noboru, 仁井田陞. Hotei Chūgoku Hōseishi Kenkyū: Tochihō, Torihikihō 補訂 中国法制史研究 土地法・取引法 (“A Study in Chinese Legal History: Law of Land and Law of Transactions”). Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, 1961; revised edition 1991.Google Scholar
Nishikawa 1983 and 1984 Nishikawa Kikuko 西川喜久子. “‘Juntoku hokumon Ra-shi zokufu’ kō jō ge 『順徳北門羅氏族譜』考上･下” (“Consideration of the Luo surname genealogy of Beimen, Shunde county, Parts 1 and 2”). Hokuriku shigaku 北陸史学 32 (1983), pp. 1–22; 33 (1984), pp. 21–39.Google Scholar
Oyama 1991 Oyama Masaaki, 小山正明. Min-Shin shakai-keizaishi kenkyū 明清社会経済史研究 (“Studies in Ming–Qing Socio-economic History”). Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Palmer 1987 Palmer, Michael. “The Surface-Subsoil Form of Divided Ownership in Late Imperial China: Some Examples from the New Territories of Hong Kong.” Modern Asian Studies 21:1 (1987), pp. 1–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pittis and Henders 1998 Pittis, Donald and Henders, Susan J., eds. Macao: Mysterious Decay and Romance. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
“Report on the New Territory for the Year 1900” “Report on the New Territory for the Year 1900.” Hong Kong Government Gazette, 17 August 1901, pp. 1390–97.Google Scholar
Segawa 1996 Segawa Masahisa, 瀬川昌久. Zokufu: Kanan Kanzoku no sōzoku, fūsui, ijū. 族譜：華南漢族の宗族・風水・移住 (“The Written Genealogy: Lineage, Geomancy and Migration of the Han People of South China”). Tokyo: Fūkyōsha, 1996.Google Scholar
Shiga 1967 Shiga Shūzō, 滋賀秀三. Chūgoku Kazokuhō no genri 中国家族法の原理 (“Principles of Chinese Family Law”). Tokyo: Sōbunsha, 1967.Google Scholar
Shiga 1984 Shiga Shūzō, 滋賀秀三. Shindai Chūgoku no hō to saiban 清代中国の法と裁判 (“Law and Justice in Qing China”). Tokyo: Sōbunsha, 1984.Google Scholar
Szonyi 2002 Szonyi, Michael. Practicing Kinship: Lineage and Descent in Late Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakeman 1966 Wakeman, Frederic Jr. Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China, 1839–1861. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966.Google Scholar
Wang 1973a Wang, Yeh-chien. Land Taxation in Imperial China, 1750–1911. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang 1973b Wang, Yeh-chien. An Estimate of the Land-tax Collection in China, 1753 and 1908. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1973.Google Scholar
Zelin 1984 Zelin, Madeleine. The Magistrate's Tael: Rationalizing Fiscal Reform in Eighteenth-Century Ch'ing China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.Google Scholar