Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T09:27:58.824Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE PHANTASM OF THE WESTERN CAPITAL (SŎGYŎNG): IMPERIAL KOREA'S REDEVELOPMENT OF P'YŎNGYANG, 1902–1908

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 July 2015

Eugene Y. Park
Eugene Y. Park*
Affiliation:
University of Pennsylvania E-mail epa@sas.upenn.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Western Capital (Sŏgyŏng) project was of ideological, cultural, and strategic significance for the Empire of Korea (1897–1910) struggling for survival in the age of imperialism. This study argues that Imperial Korea's understanding of its place in the civilized world of the past, present, and future inspired redeveloping P'yŏngyang as the secondary capital. The advocates cited the history of the city in particular and of the nation in general to legitimize the project. Also, status-conscious specialist chungin (“middle people”), a newly prominent social group with loyalist members, played active roles. Moreover, responding to the deteriorating Russo-Japanese relations, Korea began preparing the nation's secondary capital, located within a neutral zone that Russia proposed to Japan. From the outset, the critics of the project highlighted funding constraints, a heavy tax burden on the local population, and rapacious officials exploiting the situation. The Japanese victory over Russia in 1905 effectively ended the project, but the memory of P'yŏngyang's status as the secondary capital outlived the Empire of Korea and the subsequent Japanese colonial rule before the city became the national capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, established in 1948.

Keywords

KoreaChosŏnKojongKwangmuP'yŏngyang, Seoulchunginyangban
Type
Law, State and Society in China [9]
Information
International Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 12 , Issue 2 , July 2015 , pp. 167 - 191
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Bishop 1897 Bishop, Isabella Bird. Korea and Her Neighbors: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the Country. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1897.Google Scholar
Chigugwanch'ŏng ilgiChigugwanch’ŏng ilgi 知殼官廳日記 [Daily records of the Military Guard Office]. 9 vols. N.p.: Muwiso, n.d. Han'gukhak chungang yŏn'guwŏn. Han'guk chŏnja tosŏgwan [Korean studies electronic library]. http://lib.lib.ac.kr/DLiWeb20/components/searchir/detail/detail.aspx?cid=104554. Accessed November 30, 2011.Google Scholar
Chosŏn ilboChosŏn ilbo 朝鮮日報 [The Chosunilbo].Google Scholar
Hojŏk 1903 Hojŏk 戶籍 [household register] of hoju 戶主 [household head] U Ch'anggi 禹昌基. 13-9 Mukchŏng-dong, Och'ŏn-gye, Hundo-bang, Nam-sŏ, Hansŏng-bu, 1903.Google Scholar
Hojŏk 1906a Hojŏk 戶籍 [household register] of hoju 戶主 [household head] Yi Kŭnbae 李根培. 32-3 Sorip-tong, Yusaik-kye, Changt'ong-bang, Chung-sŏ, Hansŏng-bu, 1906.Google Scholar
Hojŏk 1906b Hojŏk 戶籍 [household register] of hoju 戶主 [household head] Yi Kŭnbae 李根培. 32-6 Sorip-tong, Yusaik-kye, Changt'ong-bang, Chung-sŏ, Hansŏng-bu, 1906.Google Scholar
Hulbert 1906 Hulbert, Homer B.The Passing of Korea. New York: Doubleday, Page and Company, 1906.Google Scholar
Hwangsŏng sinmunHwangsŏng sinmun 皇城新聞 [Capital gazette].Google Scholar
IlsŏngnokIlsŏngnok 日省錄 [The record of daily reflections]. 86 vols. Seoul: Sŏul taehakkyo tosŏgwan, 1996.Google Scholar
KajarokKajarok 加資錄 [Record of court rank promotions]. Hand-copied edition. N.p.: Naebu, 1905.Google Scholar
Kikuchi 1939 Kikuchi Kenjō 菊池謙讓. Kindai Chōsenshi 近代朝鮮史 [A history of modern Korea], vol. 2. Keijō: Keimeisha, 1939.Google Scholar
Kojong ŏjin tosa togam ŭigweKojong ŏjin tosa togam ŭigwe 高宗御眞圖寫都監儀軌 [Royal protocols of the administration for preparing Kojong's portrait]. Seoul: Sŏul taehakkyo Kyujanggak, 1996.Google Scholar
Kojong sillokKojong-Sunjong sillok 高宗純宗實錄 [Veritable records of Emperor Kojong and Emperor Sunjong]. 3 vols. Seoul: T'amgudang, 1986.Google Scholar
Konishi 1941 Konishi Chihiko 小西千比古. Akagi Kakudō sensei Heijō sentoron 赤木格堂先生平壤遷都論. Tokyo: Tōyōkyū kyōkai, 1941.Google Scholar
KwanboKwanbo 官報 [Official gazette]. Reprint. Seoul: Asea munhwasa, 1973.Google Scholar
Kyŏngse yup'yoChŏng Yagyong 丁若鏞. Kyŏngse yup'yo: wŏnmun [Memorial on statecraft: the original text]. Seoul: Hyŏndae sirhaksa, 2004.Google Scholar
Longford 1911 Longford, Joseph H.The Story of Korea. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1911.Google Scholar
Maech'ŏn yarokHwang Hyŏn 黃玹. Maech'ŏn yarok 梅泉野錄 [Memoir of Maech'ŏn]. Seoul: Kuksa p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe, 1971.Google Scholar
Nakamura 1939 Nakamura Shirō 中村資良. Chōsen ginkō kaisha kumiai yōroku 朝鮮銀行會社組合要錄 [Directory of Korean banks, companies, and financial associations] (1939). From Kuksa p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe 國史編纂委員會, Han'guksa teit'ŏ peisŭ [Korean history database]. http://db.history.go.kr. Accessed May 10, 2012.Google Scholar
Pak Kŭndong 2004 Pak Kŭndong 朴根東. Interview by author. Seoul, September 13, 2004.Google Scholar
Pak Pyŏnghae 1995 Pak Pyŏnghae 朴炳海. Interview by author. Seoul, October 5, 1995.Google Scholar
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1898a) Allen, Horace N., to John Sherman. “Title of Emperor Assumed by the King” (October 14, 1897). In the United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, December 5, 1898, pp. 484–85. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898.Google Scholar
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1898b) Sherman, John, to Horace N. Allen. “Title of Emperor Assumed by the King” (November 30, 1897). In the United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, December 5, 1898, p. 485. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898.Google Scholar
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1898c)Allen, Horace N., to John Sherman. “Title of Emperor Assumed by the King” (December 23, 1897). In the United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, December 5, 1898, pp. 485–86. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898.Google Scholar
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1902) Allen, Horace N., to Hay, John. “Discourteous Treatment of American Residents of Peng-Yang by Korean Officials” (November 19, 1902). In United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, December 7, 1903, p. 626. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1903.Google Scholar
Sŏul sinmunSŏul sinmun [Seoul daily].Google Scholar
Sŭngjŏngwŏn ilgi: KojongSŭngjŏngwŏn ilgi: Kojong 承政院日記 : 高宗 [Daily records of the Royal Secretariat: Emperor Kojong]. 15 vols. Seoul: Kuksa p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe, 1968.Google Scholar
Taehan maeil sinboTaehan maeil sinbo 大韓每日申報 (The Korea Daily News).Google Scholar
Tanyang U-ssi taedongboTanyang U-ssi taedongbo 丹陽禹氏大同譜 [Comprehensive genealogy of the Tanyang U]. 6 vols. Taejŏn: n.p., 1966.Google Scholar
Tonga ilboTonga ilbo 東亞日報 (The Dong-A Ilbo).Google Scholar
Tongnip sinmunTongnip sinmun (The Independent).Google Scholar
Toyokawa 1934 Toyokawa Zenyō 豊川善曄. Keijō sento ron 京城遷都論. Keijō: Kyōadō shoten, 1934.Google Scholar
Yi Manson 1881 Yi Manson and Others. “Memorial Submitted by Ten Thousand Men.” 1881. In Sources of Korean Tradition, Vol. 2: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries, eds. Choe, Yong-ho, Lee, Peter H., and de Bary, William Theodore, pp. 242–44. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Yun Ch'iho ilgiYun Ch'iho 尹致昊. Yun Ch'iho ilgi 尹致昊日記 [Diary of Yun Ch'iho]. 11 vols. Seoul: Kuksa p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe, 1976.Google Scholar
Andrew Eungi Kim 2001 Kim, Andrew Eungi. “Political Insecurity, Social Chaos, Religious Void and the Rise of Protestantism in Late Nineteenth-Century Korea.” Social History 26:3 (October 2001), pp. 267–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breuker 2010 Breuker, Remco E.Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea, 918–1170: History, Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty. Leiden: Brill, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown 1973 Brown, Peter. “A Dark-Age Crisis: Aspects of the Iconoclastic Controversy.” The English Historical Review 88:346 (January 1973), pp. 1–34.Google Scholar
Chandra 1988 Chandra, Vipan. Imperialism, Resistance, and Reform in Late Nineteenth-Century Korea: Enlightenment and the Independence Club. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1988.Google Scholar
Ch'inil inmyŏng sajŏn p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe 2009 Ch'inil inmyŏng sajŏn p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe. Ch'inil inmyŏng sajŏn [A dictionary of pro-Japanese collaborators]. 3 vols. Seoul: Minjok munje yŏn'guso, 2009.Google Scholar
Cho 1996 Cho Chaegon. “Taehan cheguk-ki kunsa chŏngch'aek kwa kunsa kigu ŭi unyŏng” [The military policy and the management of military institutions during the Empire of Korea period]. Yŏksa wa hyŏnsil 19 (1996), pp. 108–10.Google Scholar
Chŏn Uyong 2000 Chŏn Uyong. “‘Taehan cheguk’ p'yŏngka nonjaeng” [Debates on the assessment of the ‘Empire of Korea’]. In Nonjaeng ŭro pon Han'guk sahoe 100 nyŏn [100 years of Korean society as seen through debates], ed. Yŏksa pip'yŏng p'yŏnjip wiwŏnhoe, [no pagination]. Seoul: Yŏksa pip'yŏngsa, 2000. Electronic book.Google Scholar
Chŏng Chaejŏng 1999 Chŏng Chaejŏng. Ilche ch'imnyak kwa Han'guk ch'ŏlto [Japanese invasion and Korean railroads]. Seoul: Sŏul taehakkyo ch'ulp'anbu, 1999.Google Scholar
Chŏng Sangsu 2010 Chŏng Sangsu. “Ilbon ŭi Han'guk kangje pyŏnghap kwa kangdaeguktŭl ŭi taeŭng, 1895–1910 nyŏn” (Japan's Annexation of Korea and Foreign Policy of Great Powers, 1895–1910). Sŏyangsa yŏn'gu 42 (May 2010), pp. 110–49.Google Scholar
Chŏng Sangsu 2009 Chŏng Sangsu. Interview by Chungang ilbo. September 29, 2009.Google Scholar
Chŏng Sangsu 2008a Chŏng Sangsu. Interview by Chungang ilbo. February 20, 2008.Google Scholar
Chŏng Sangsu 2008b Chŏng Sangsu, interview by Chungang ilbo. March 3, 2008.Google Scholar
Chu 2005 Chu Chin-Oh [Chu Chino]. “The Independence Club's Conceptions of Nationalism and the Modern State.” In Landlords, Peasants, and Intellectuals in Modern Korea, eds. Kie-Chung, Pang and Shin, Michael D., pp. 53–89. Ithaca: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 2005.Google Scholar
Chu 2003 Chu Chino. “Han'guk kŭndae kungmin kukka surip kwajŏng esŏ wangkwŏn ŭi yŏkhwal (1880–1894)” [The role of royal power during the process of establishing a modern nation-state in Korea (1880–1894)]. Yŏksa wa hyŏnsil 50 (December 2003), pp. 46–67.Google Scholar
Chu 1995 Chu Chino. “19 segi huban Kaehwa kaehyŏngnon ŭi kujo wa chŏn'gae” [The structure and development of late nineteenth-century Enlightenment reform discourse: a study of the Independence Club]. Ph.D. dissertation. Yŏnse taehakkyo, 1995.Google Scholar
Clark 1997 Clark, Donald N. “History and Religion in Modern Korea: The Case of Protestant Christianity.” In Religion and Society in Contemporary Korea, eds. Lancaster, Lewis R. and Payne, Richard K., pp. 169–213. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1997.Google Scholar
Dix 1945 Dix, Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Liturgy. London: Dacre Press, 1945.Google Scholar
Fairbank et al. 1973 Fairbank, John K., Reischauer, Edwin O., and Craig, Albert M.. East Asia: Tradition and Transformation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973.Google Scholar
Haboush 1999 Haboush, JaHyun Kim. “Constructing the Center: The Ritual Controversy and the Search for a New Identity in Seventeenth-Century Korea.” In Culture and the State in Late Chosŏn Korea, eds. Haboush, JaHyun Kim and Deuchler, Martina, pp. 46–90. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 1999.Google Scholar
Han'guk minjok munhwa tae paekkwa sajŏn p'yŏnch'anbu 1991 Han'guk minjok munhwa tae paekkwa sajŏn p'yŏnch'anbu. Han'guk minjok munhwa taebaekkwa sajŏn [An encyclopedia of Korean national culture]. 27 vols. Sŏngnam: Han'guk chŏngsin munhwa yŏn'guwŏn, 1991.Google Scholar
Hŏ 2005 Hŏ Tonghyŏn. “Taehan cheguk ŭi model rŏsŏ ŭi Rŏsia” [Russia as a model for the Empire of Korea]. Myŏngji taehakkyo kukche Han'gukhak yŏn'guso yŏllye haksul taehoe (January 2005), pp. 58–61.Google Scholar
Hwang 2006 Hwang, Kyung Moon. “Governmental Growth in the Taehan Empire Era: Origins of the Modern Korean State.” In Reform and Modernity in the Taehan Empire, eds. Dong-no, Kim, Duncan, John B., and Do-hyung, Kim, pp. 157–210. Seoul: Jimoondang, 2006.Google Scholar
Hwang 2004 Hwang, Kyung Moon. Beyond Birth: Social Status in the Emergence of Modern Korea. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2004.Google Scholar
Kim Chonghŏn 2009 Kim Chonghŏn. “Rŏsia oegyogwan Peberŭ wa Agwan p'ach'ŏn” [The Russian diplomat Weber and the royal flight to the Russian legation]. Yŏksa pip'yŏng 86 (2009), pp. 365–94.Google Scholar
Kim Dong-no et al. 2006 Kim Dong-no, John B. Duncan, and Kim Do-hyung, eds. Reform and Modernity in the Taehan Empire. Seoul: Jimoondang, 2006.Google Scholar
Kim Hyŏnsuk 2008 Kim Hyŏnsuk. “Taehan cheguk-ki T'akchibu komun Alekseyep'ŭ ŭi chaejŏng chŏngch'aek kwa ch'in-Rŏ hwaltong” [Revenue policies and pro-Russian activities of Finance Ministry Adviser Alexeiev during the Empire of Korea period]. Han'guk kŭnhyŏndaesa yŏn'gu 45 (December 2008), pp. 86–87.Google Scholar
Kim Soyŏng 2004 Kim Soyŏng. “Yongam-p'o sakkŏn e taehan Taehan cheguk ŭi wigi ŭisik kwa taeŭng” [The Empire of Korea's sense of crisis and response to the Yongam-p'o Incident]. Han'guk kŭnhyŏndaesa yŏn'gu 31 (December 2004), pp. 148–57.Google Scholar
Kim Yangsu 1999 Kim Yangsu. “Chosŏn hugi sahoe pyŏndong kwa chŏnmunjik chungin ŭi hwaltong: yŏkkwan, ŭigwan, ŭmyanggwan, yulgwan, sanwŏn, hwawŏn, agin tŭng kwa kwallyŏn hayŏ” [Late Chosŏn social change and the activities of specialist chungin: government interpreters, physicians, astronomers, jurists, accountants, painters, and musicians]. In Han'guk kŭndae ihaenggi chungin yŏn'gu [The chungin during Korea's modern transition], ed. Yŏnse taehakkyo Kukhak yŏn'guwŏn, pp. 171–300. Seoul: Sinsŏwŏn, 1999.Google Scholar
Kim Yunjŏng and Sŏ Ch'isang 2009 Kim Yunjŏng and Sŏ Ch'isang. “Kwangmu 6-nyŏn ŭi P'yŏngyang P'unggyŏng-gung ch'anggŏn kongsa e kwanhan yŏn'gu” [The construction of P'unggyŏng Palace in P'yŏngyang in the sixth year of the Kwangmu era]. Taehan kŏnch'uk hakhoe nonmunjip 25:9 (September 2009), pp. 177–86.Google Scholar
Kim Yunjŏng and Sŏ Ch'isang 2006 Kim Yunjŏng and Sŏ Ch'isang. “P'unggyŏng-gung kŏnch'uk e kwanhan yŏn'gu” [A study on the construction of P'unggyŏng Palace]. Taehan kŏnch'uk hakhoe haksul palp'yo taehoe nonmunjip 26:1 (October 2006), pp. 493–96.Google Scholar
Kwangmu kaehyŏk yŏn'guban 1992 yŏn'guban, Kwangmu kaehyŏk. “‘Kwangmu kaehyŏk’ yŏn'gu ŭi hyŏnhwang kwa kwaje” [The current status and problems of studies on the Kwangmu Reform]. Yŏksa wa hyŏnsil 8 (December 1992), pp. 342–66.Google Scholar
Lee 1963 Lee, Chong-sik. The Politics of Korean Nationalism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963.Google Scholar
Lee 1999 Lee, Yur-Bok. “A Korean View of Korean–American Relations, 1882–1910.” In Korean–American Relations, 1866–1997, eds. Lee, Yur-Bok and Patterson, Wayne, pp. 11–34. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Lee 1988 Lee, Yur-Bok. West Goes East: Paul Georg von Möllendorff and Great Power Imperialism in Late Yi Korea. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mun 2000 Mun Hŭisu. “Kukchejŏk chŏnhu kwan'gye e issŏsŏ Agwan p'ach'ŏn—1895–1896” [The royal flight to the Russian legation in the context of what preceded and followed vis-à-vis international relations—1895–1896]. Myŏngsŏng hwanghu sihae sakŏn kwa Awan p'ach'ŏn'gi ŭi kukche kwan'gye [Murder of Empress Myŏngsŏng and international relations during the period of the royal flight to the Russian legation], ed. Han'guk chŏngch'i oegyosa hakhoe, pp. 231–55. Seoul: Tongnimsa, 2000.Google Scholar
Nicol 1993 Nicol, Donald M.The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453. Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Okamoto 2009 Ok'amot'o T'ak'asi [Okamoto Takashi]. Miwan ŭi kihoek, Chosŏn ŭi tongnip [An incomplete project, the independence of Korea]. Seoul: Sowadang, 2009.Google Scholar
Pae 2007 Pae Hangsŏp. “Cho-Rŏ sugyo (1884) chŏnhu Chosŏnin ŭi Rŏsia kwan” [Korean perspectives on Russia around the time of the establishment of Korean–Russian relations (1884)]. Yŏksa hakpo 194 (2007), pp. 147–48.Google Scholar
Palais 1991 Palais, James B.Politics and Policy in Traditional Korea. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 1991.Google Scholar
Park 2014 Park, Eugene Y.A Family of No Prominence: The Descendants of Pak Tŏkhwa and the Birth of Modern Korea. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Park 2007 Park, Eugene Y.Between Dreams and Reality: The Military Examination in Late Chosŏn Korea, 1600–1894. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2007.Google Scholar
Rogers 1983 Rogers, Michael. “National Consciousness in Medieval Korea: The Impact of Liao and Chin on Koryŏ.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, ed. Rossabi, Morris, pp. 151–72. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw 2007 Shaw, Carole Cameron. The Foreign Destruction of Korean Independence. Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Shim 2002 Shim, Jae-hoon. “A New Understanding of Kija Chosŏn as a Historical Anachronism.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 62:2 (December 2002), pp. 271–305.Google Scholar
Sŏ Inhan 2000 Sŏ Inhan. Taehan cheguk ŭi kunsa chedo [The military institutions of the Empire of Korea]. Seoul: Hyean, 2000.Google Scholar
Sŏ Yŏnghŭi 2012 Sŏ Yŏnghŭi. Ilche ch'imnyak kwa Taehan cheguk ŭi chongmal: Rŏ-Il chŏnjaeng esŏ Han-Il happang kkaji [Imperial Japanese incursion and the end of the Empire of Korea: from the Russo-Japanese War to the Japanese annexation of Korea]. Seoul: Yŏksa p'ip'yŏngsa, 2012.Google Scholar
Yang 2006 Yang Sanghyŏn. “Taehan cheguk ŭi kunje kaep'yŏn kwa kunsa yesan unyŏng” [The Empire of Korea's reorganization of military system and management of military budget]. Yŏksa wa kyŏnggye 61 (2006), pp. 179–212.Google Scholar
Yi Minwŏn 2002 Yi Minwŏn. Myŏngsŏng hwanghu sihae wa Agwan p'ach'ŏn [Murder of Empress Myŏngsŏng and royal flight to the Russian legation]. Seoul: Kukhak charyowŏn, 2002.Google Scholar
Yi Sŭngnyŏl 2007 Yi Sŭngnyŏl. Cheguk kwa sangin: Sŏul-Kaesŏng-Inch'ŏn chiyŏk chabon'gadŭl kwa Han'guk purŭjua ŭi kiwŏn, 1896–1945 [Empires and merchants: the capitalists of Seoul, Kaesŏng, and Inch'ŏn regions, and the origins of the Korean bourgeoisie, 1896–1945]. Seoul: Yŏksa pip'yŏngsa, 2007.Google Scholar
Yi T'aejin 1999 Yi Tae-Jin [Yi T'aejin]. “Seoul at the Beginning of the 20th Century: Urban Development Based on Western Models.” Korea Journal 39:3 (Autumn 1999), pp. 95–120.Google Scholar
Yi T'aejin 1996 Yi Tae-jin [Yi T'aejin]. “The Illegality of the Forced Treaties Leading to Japan's Annexation of the Great Han Empire: A Discussion of Japan's Annexation of Korea in Terms of Its Illegality.” Korea Journal 36:4 (Winter 1996), pp. 55–84.Google Scholar
Bishop 1897 Bishop, Isabella Bird. Korea and Her Neighbors: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the Country. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1897.Google Scholar
Chigugwanch'ŏng ilgiChigugwanch’ŏng ilgi 知殼官廳日記 [Daily records of the Military Guard Office]. 9 vols. N.p.: Muwiso, n.d. Han'gukhak chungang yŏn'guwŏn. Han'guk chŏnja tosŏgwan [Korean studies electronic library]. http://lib.lib.ac.kr/DLiWeb20/components/searchir/detail/detail.aspx?cid=104554. Accessed November 30, 2011.Google Scholar
Chosŏn ilboChosŏn ilbo 朝鮮日報 [The Chosunilbo].Google Scholar
Hojŏk 1903 Hojŏk 戶籍 [household register] of hoju 戶主 [household head] U Ch'anggi 禹昌基. 13-9 Mukchŏng-dong, Och'ŏn-gye, Hundo-bang, Nam-sŏ, Hansŏng-bu, 1903.Google Scholar
Hojŏk 1906a Hojŏk 戶籍 [household register] of hoju 戶主 [household head] Yi Kŭnbae 李根培. 32-3 Sorip-tong, Yusaik-kye, Changt'ong-bang, Chung-sŏ, Hansŏng-bu, 1906.Google Scholar
Hojŏk 1906b Hojŏk 戶籍 [household register] of hoju 戶主 [household head] Yi Kŭnbae 李根培. 32-6 Sorip-tong, Yusaik-kye, Changt'ong-bang, Chung-sŏ, Hansŏng-bu, 1906.Google Scholar
Hulbert 1906 Hulbert, Homer B.The Passing of Korea. New York: Doubleday, Page and Company, 1906.Google Scholar
Hwangsŏng sinmunHwangsŏng sinmun 皇城新聞 [Capital gazette].Google Scholar
IlsŏngnokIlsŏngnok 日省錄 [The record of daily reflections]. 86 vols. Seoul: Sŏul taehakkyo tosŏgwan, 1996.Google Scholar
KajarokKajarok 加資錄 [Record of court rank promotions]. Hand-copied edition. N.p.: Naebu, 1905.Google Scholar
Kikuchi 1939 Kikuchi Kenjō 菊池謙讓. Kindai Chōsenshi 近代朝鮮史 [A history of modern Korea], vol. 2. Keijō: Keimeisha, 1939.Google Scholar
Kojong ŏjin tosa togam ŭigweKojong ŏjin tosa togam ŭigwe 高宗御眞圖寫都監儀軌 [Royal protocols of the administration for preparing Kojong's portrait]. Seoul: Sŏul taehakkyo Kyujanggak, 1996.Google Scholar
Kojong sillokKojong-Sunjong sillok 高宗純宗實錄 [Veritable records of Emperor Kojong and Emperor Sunjong]. 3 vols. Seoul: T'amgudang, 1986.Google Scholar
Konishi 1941 Konishi Chihiko 小西千比古. Akagi Kakudō sensei Heijō sentoron 赤木格堂先生平壤遷都論. Tokyo: Tōyōkyū kyōkai, 1941.Google Scholar
KwanboKwanbo 官報 [Official gazette]. Reprint. Seoul: Asea munhwasa, 1973.Google Scholar
Kyŏngse yup'yoChŏng Yagyong 丁若鏞. Kyŏngse yup'yo: wŏnmun [Memorial on statecraft: the original text]. Seoul: Hyŏndae sirhaksa, 2004.Google Scholar
Longford 1911 Longford, Joseph H.The Story of Korea. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1911.Google Scholar
Maech'ŏn yarokHwang Hyŏn 黃玹. Maech'ŏn yarok 梅泉野錄 [Memoir of Maech'ŏn]. Seoul: Kuksa p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe, 1971.Google Scholar
Nakamura 1939 Nakamura Shirō 中村資良. Chōsen ginkō kaisha kumiai yōroku 朝鮮銀行會社組合要錄 [Directory of Korean banks, companies, and financial associations] (1939). From Kuksa p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe 國史編纂委員會, Han'guksa teit'ŏ peisŭ [Korean history database]. http://db.history.go.kr. Accessed May 10, 2012.Google Scholar
Pak Kŭndong 2004 Pak Kŭndong 朴根東. Interview by author. Seoul, September 13, 2004.Google Scholar
Pak Pyŏnghae 1995 Pak Pyŏnghae 朴炳海. Interview by author. Seoul, October 5, 1995.Google Scholar
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1898a) Allen, Horace N., to John Sherman. “Title of Emperor Assumed by the King” (October 14, 1897). In the United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, December 5, 1898, pp. 484–85. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898.Google Scholar
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1898b) Sherman, John, to Horace N. Allen. “Title of Emperor Assumed by the King” (November 30, 1897). In the United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, December 5, 1898, p. 485. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898.Google Scholar
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1898c)Allen, Horace N., to John Sherman. “Title of Emperor Assumed by the King” (December 23, 1897). In the United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, December 5, 1898, pp. 485–86. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898.Google Scholar
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1902) Allen, Horace N., to Hay, John. “Discourteous Treatment of American Residents of Peng-Yang by Korean Officials” (November 19, 1902). In United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, December 7, 1903, p. 626. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1903.Google Scholar
Sŏul sinmunSŏul sinmun [Seoul daily].Google Scholar
Sŭngjŏngwŏn ilgi: KojongSŭngjŏngwŏn ilgi: Kojong 承政院日記 : 高宗 [Daily records of the Royal Secretariat: Emperor Kojong]. 15 vols. Seoul: Kuksa p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe, 1968.Google Scholar
Taehan maeil sinboTaehan maeil sinbo 大韓每日申報 (The Korea Daily News).Google Scholar
Tanyang U-ssi taedongboTanyang U-ssi taedongbo 丹陽禹氏大同譜 [Comprehensive genealogy of the Tanyang U]. 6 vols. Taejŏn: n.p., 1966.Google Scholar
Tonga ilboTonga ilbo 東亞日報 (The Dong-A Ilbo).Google Scholar
Tongnip sinmunTongnip sinmun (The Independent).Google Scholar
Toyokawa 1934 Toyokawa Zenyō 豊川善曄. Keijō sento ron 京城遷都論. Keijō: Kyōadō shoten, 1934.Google Scholar
Yi Manson 1881 Yi Manson and Others. “Memorial Submitted by Ten Thousand Men.” 1881. In Sources of Korean Tradition, Vol. 2: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries, eds. Choe, Yong-ho, Lee, Peter H., and de Bary, William Theodore, pp. 242–44. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Yun Ch'iho ilgiYun Ch'iho 尹致昊. Yun Ch'iho ilgi 尹致昊日記 [Diary of Yun Ch'iho]. 11 vols. Seoul: Kuksa p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe, 1976.Google Scholar
Andrew Eungi Kim 2001 Kim, Andrew Eungi. “Political Insecurity, Social Chaos, Religious Void and the Rise of Protestantism in Late Nineteenth-Century Korea.” Social History 26:3 (October 2001), pp. 267–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breuker 2010 Breuker, Remco E.Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea, 918–1170: History, Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty. Leiden: Brill, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown 1973 Brown, Peter. “A Dark-Age Crisis: Aspects of the Iconoclastic Controversy.” The English Historical Review 88:346 (January 1973), pp. 1–34.Google Scholar
Chandra 1988 Chandra, Vipan. Imperialism, Resistance, and Reform in Late Nineteenth-Century Korea: Enlightenment and the Independence Club. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1988.Google Scholar
Ch'inil inmyŏng sajŏn p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe 2009 Ch'inil inmyŏng sajŏn p'yŏnch'an wiwŏnhoe. Ch'inil inmyŏng sajŏn [A dictionary of pro-Japanese collaborators]. 3 vols. Seoul: Minjok munje yŏn'guso, 2009.Google Scholar
Cho 1996 Cho Chaegon. “Taehan cheguk-ki kunsa chŏngch'aek kwa kunsa kigu ŭi unyŏng” [The military policy and the management of military institutions during the Empire of Korea period]. Yŏksa wa hyŏnsil 19 (1996), pp. 108–10.Google Scholar
Chŏn Uyong 2000 Chŏn Uyong. “‘Taehan cheguk’ p'yŏngka nonjaeng” [Debates on the assessment of the ‘Empire of Korea’]. In Nonjaeng ŭro pon Han'guk sahoe 100 nyŏn [100 years of Korean society as seen through debates], ed. Yŏksa pip'yŏng p'yŏnjip wiwŏnhoe, [no pagination]. Seoul: Yŏksa pip'yŏngsa, 2000. Electronic book.Google Scholar
Chŏng Chaejŏng 1999 Chŏng Chaejŏng. Ilche ch'imnyak kwa Han'guk ch'ŏlto [Japanese invasion and Korean railroads]. Seoul: Sŏul taehakkyo ch'ulp'anbu, 1999.Google Scholar
Chŏng Sangsu 2010 Chŏng Sangsu. “Ilbon ŭi Han'guk kangje pyŏnghap kwa kangdaeguktŭl ŭi taeŭng, 1895–1910 nyŏn” (Japan's Annexation of Korea and Foreign Policy of Great Powers, 1895–1910). Sŏyangsa yŏn'gu 42 (May 2010), pp. 110–49.Google Scholar
Chŏng Sangsu 2009 Chŏng Sangsu. Interview by Chungang ilbo. September 29, 2009.Google Scholar
Chŏng Sangsu 2008a Chŏng Sangsu. Interview by Chungang ilbo. February 20, 2008.Google Scholar
Chŏng Sangsu 2008b Chŏng Sangsu, interview by Chungang ilbo. March 3, 2008.Google Scholar
Chu 2005 Chu Chin-Oh [Chu Chino]. “The Independence Club's Conceptions of Nationalism and the Modern State.” In Landlords, Peasants, and Intellectuals in Modern Korea, eds. Kie-Chung, Pang and Shin, Michael D., pp. 53–89. Ithaca: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 2005.Google Scholar
Chu 2003 Chu Chino. “Han'guk kŭndae kungmin kukka surip kwajŏng esŏ wangkwŏn ŭi yŏkhwal (1880–1894)” [The role of royal power during the process of establishing a modern nation-state in Korea (1880–1894)]. Yŏksa wa hyŏnsil 50 (December 2003), pp. 46–67.Google Scholar
Chu 1995 Chu Chino. “19 segi huban Kaehwa kaehyŏngnon ŭi kujo wa chŏn'gae” [The structure and development of late nineteenth-century Enlightenment reform discourse: a study of the Independence Club]. Ph.D. dissertation. Yŏnse taehakkyo, 1995.Google Scholar
Clark 1997 Clark, Donald N. “History and Religion in Modern Korea: The Case of Protestant Christianity.” In Religion and Society in Contemporary Korea, eds. Lancaster, Lewis R. and Payne, Richard K., pp. 169–213. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1997.Google Scholar
Dix 1945 Dix, Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Liturgy. London: Dacre Press, 1945.Google Scholar
Fairbank et al. 1973 Fairbank, John K., Reischauer, Edwin O., and Craig, Albert M.. East Asia: Tradition and Transformation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973.Google Scholar
Haboush 1999 Haboush, JaHyun Kim. “Constructing the Center: The Ritual Controversy and the Search for a New Identity in Seventeenth-Century Korea.” In Culture and the State in Late Chosŏn Korea, eds. Haboush, JaHyun Kim and Deuchler, Martina, pp. 46–90. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 1999.Google Scholar
Han'guk minjok munhwa tae paekkwa sajŏn p'yŏnch'anbu 1991 Han'guk minjok munhwa tae paekkwa sajŏn p'yŏnch'anbu. Han'guk minjok munhwa taebaekkwa sajŏn [An encyclopedia of Korean national culture]. 27 vols. Sŏngnam: Han'guk chŏngsin munhwa yŏn'guwŏn, 1991.Google Scholar
Hŏ 2005 Hŏ Tonghyŏn. “Taehan cheguk ŭi model rŏsŏ ŭi Rŏsia” [Russia as a model for the Empire of Korea]. Myŏngji taehakkyo kukche Han'gukhak yŏn'guso yŏllye haksul taehoe (January 2005), pp. 58–61.Google Scholar
Hwang 2006 Hwang, Kyung Moon. “Governmental Growth in the Taehan Empire Era: Origins of the Modern Korean State.” In Reform and Modernity in the Taehan Empire, eds. Dong-no, Kim, Duncan, John B., and Do-hyung, Kim, pp. 157–210. Seoul: Jimoondang, 2006.Google Scholar
Hwang 2004 Hwang, Kyung Moon. Beyond Birth: Social Status in the Emergence of Modern Korea. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2004.Google Scholar
Kim Chonghŏn 2009 Kim Chonghŏn. “Rŏsia oegyogwan Peberŭ wa Agwan p'ach'ŏn” [The Russian diplomat Weber and the royal flight to the Russian legation]. Yŏksa pip'yŏng 86 (2009), pp. 365–94.Google Scholar
Kim Dong-no et al. 2006 Kim Dong-no, John B. Duncan, and Kim Do-hyung, eds. Reform and Modernity in the Taehan Empire. Seoul: Jimoondang, 2006.Google Scholar
Kim Hyŏnsuk 2008 Kim Hyŏnsuk. “Taehan cheguk-ki T'akchibu komun Alekseyep'ŭ ŭi chaejŏng chŏngch'aek kwa ch'in-Rŏ hwaltong” [Revenue policies and pro-Russian activities of Finance Ministry Adviser Alexeiev during the Empire of Korea period]. Han'guk kŭnhyŏndaesa yŏn'gu 45 (December 2008), pp. 86–87.Google Scholar
Kim Soyŏng 2004 Kim Soyŏng. “Yongam-p'o sakkŏn e taehan Taehan cheguk ŭi wigi ŭisik kwa taeŭng” [The Empire of Korea's sense of crisis and response to the Yongam-p'o Incident]. Han'guk kŭnhyŏndaesa yŏn'gu 31 (December 2004), pp. 148–57.Google Scholar
Kim Yangsu 1999 Kim Yangsu. “Chosŏn hugi sahoe pyŏndong kwa chŏnmunjik chungin ŭi hwaltong: yŏkkwan, ŭigwan, ŭmyanggwan, yulgwan, sanwŏn, hwawŏn, agin tŭng kwa kwallyŏn hayŏ” [Late Chosŏn social change and the activities of specialist chungin: government interpreters, physicians, astronomers, jurists, accountants, painters, and musicians]. In Han'guk kŭndae ihaenggi chungin yŏn'gu [The chungin during Korea's modern transition], ed. Yŏnse taehakkyo Kukhak yŏn'guwŏn, pp. 171–300. Seoul: Sinsŏwŏn, 1999.Google Scholar
Kim Yunjŏng and Sŏ Ch'isang 2009 Kim Yunjŏng and Sŏ Ch'isang. “Kwangmu 6-nyŏn ŭi P'yŏngyang P'unggyŏng-gung ch'anggŏn kongsa e kwanhan yŏn'gu” [The construction of P'unggyŏng Palace in P'yŏngyang in the sixth year of the Kwangmu era]. Taehan kŏnch'uk hakhoe nonmunjip 25:9 (September 2009), pp. 177–86.Google Scholar
Kim Yunjŏng and Sŏ Ch'isang 2006 Kim Yunjŏng and Sŏ Ch'isang. “P'unggyŏng-gung kŏnch'uk e kwanhan yŏn'gu” [A study on the construction of P'unggyŏng Palace]. Taehan kŏnch'uk hakhoe haksul palp'yo taehoe nonmunjip 26:1 (October 2006), pp. 493–96.Google Scholar
Kwangmu kaehyŏk yŏn'guban 1992 yŏn'guban, Kwangmu kaehyŏk. “‘Kwangmu kaehyŏk’ yŏn'gu ŭi hyŏnhwang kwa kwaje” [The current status and problems of studies on the Kwangmu Reform]. Yŏksa wa hyŏnsil 8 (December 1992), pp. 342–66.Google Scholar
Lee 1963 Lee, Chong-sik. The Politics of Korean Nationalism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963.Google Scholar
Lee 1999 Lee, Yur-Bok. “A Korean View of Korean–American Relations, 1882–1910.” In Korean–American Relations, 1866–1997, eds. Lee, Yur-Bok and Patterson, Wayne, pp. 11–34. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Lee 1988 Lee, Yur-Bok. West Goes East: Paul Georg von Möllendorff and Great Power Imperialism in Late Yi Korea. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mun 2000 Mun Hŭisu. “Kukchejŏk chŏnhu kwan'gye e issŏsŏ Agwan p'ach'ŏn—1895–1896” [The royal flight to the Russian legation in the context of what preceded and followed vis-à-vis international relations—1895–1896]. Myŏngsŏng hwanghu sihae sakŏn kwa Awan p'ach'ŏn'gi ŭi kukche kwan'gye [Murder of Empress Myŏngsŏng and international relations during the period of the royal flight to the Russian legation], ed. Han'guk chŏngch'i oegyosa hakhoe, pp. 231–55. Seoul: Tongnimsa, 2000.Google Scholar
Nicol 1993 Nicol, Donald M.The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453. Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Okamoto 2009 Ok'amot'o T'ak'asi [Okamoto Takashi]. Miwan ŭi kihoek, Chosŏn ŭi tongnip [An incomplete project, the independence of Korea]. Seoul: Sowadang, 2009.Google Scholar
Pae 2007 Pae Hangsŏp. “Cho-Rŏ sugyo (1884) chŏnhu Chosŏnin ŭi Rŏsia kwan” [Korean perspectives on Russia around the time of the establishment of Korean–Russian relations (1884)]. Yŏksa hakpo 194 (2007), pp. 147–48.Google Scholar
Palais 1991 Palais, James B.Politics and Policy in Traditional Korea. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 1991.Google Scholar
Park 2014 Park, Eugene Y.A Family of No Prominence: The Descendants of Pak Tŏkhwa and the Birth of Modern Korea. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Park 2007 Park, Eugene Y.Between Dreams and Reality: The Military Examination in Late Chosŏn Korea, 1600–1894. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2007.Google Scholar
Rogers 1983 Rogers, Michael. “National Consciousness in Medieval Korea: The Impact of Liao and Chin on Koryŏ.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, ed. Rossabi, Morris, pp. 151–72. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw 2007 Shaw, Carole Cameron. The Foreign Destruction of Korean Independence. Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Shim 2002 Shim, Jae-hoon. “A New Understanding of Kija Chosŏn as a Historical Anachronism.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 62:2 (December 2002), pp. 271–305.Google Scholar
Sŏ Inhan 2000 Sŏ Inhan. Taehan cheguk ŭi kunsa chedo [The military institutions of the Empire of Korea]. Seoul: Hyean, 2000.Google Scholar
Sŏ Yŏnghŭi 2012 Sŏ Yŏnghŭi. Ilche ch'imnyak kwa Taehan cheguk ŭi chongmal: Rŏ-Il chŏnjaeng esŏ Han-Il happang kkaji [Imperial Japanese incursion and the end of the Empire of Korea: from the Russo-Japanese War to the Japanese annexation of Korea]. Seoul: Yŏksa p'ip'yŏngsa, 2012.Google Scholar
Yang 2006 Yang Sanghyŏn. “Taehan cheguk ŭi kunje kaep'yŏn kwa kunsa yesan unyŏng” [The Empire of Korea's reorganization of military system and management of military budget]. Yŏksa wa kyŏnggye 61 (2006), pp. 179–212.Google Scholar
Yi Minwŏn 2002 Yi Minwŏn. Myŏngsŏng hwanghu sihae wa Agwan p'ach'ŏn [Murder of Empress Myŏngsŏng and royal flight to the Russian legation]. Seoul: Kukhak charyowŏn, 2002.Google Scholar
Yi Sŭngnyŏl 2007 Yi Sŭngnyŏl. Cheguk kwa sangin: Sŏul-Kaesŏng-Inch'ŏn chiyŏk chabon'gadŭl kwa Han'guk purŭjua ŭi kiwŏn, 1896–1945 [Empires and merchants: the capitalists of Seoul, Kaesŏng, and Inch'ŏn regions, and the origins of the Korean bourgeoisie, 1896–1945]. Seoul: Yŏksa pip'yŏngsa, 2007.Google Scholar
Yi T'aejin 1999 Yi Tae-Jin [Yi T'aejin]. “Seoul at the Beginning of the 20th Century: Urban Development Based on Western Models.” Korea Journal 39:3 (Autumn 1999), pp. 95–120.Google Scholar
Yi T'aejin 1996 Yi Tae-jin [Yi T'aejin]. “The Illegality of the Forced Treaties Leading to Japan's Annexation of the Great Han Empire: A Discussion of Japan's Annexation of Korea in Terms of Its Illegality.” Korea Journal 36:4 (Winter 1996), pp. 55–84.Google Scholar