Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T06:24:36.628Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Rural Revolt and Provincial Society in Egypt, 1820–1824

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2009

Fred H. Lawson
Fred H. Lawson
Affiliation:
University of California, San Diego
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Given Gabriel Baer's 1962 study “Submissiveness and Revolt of the Fellah,” there should be no more talk of the political passivity of Egyptian peasants and their rural neighbors during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Baer demonstrates that rural uprisings were frequent and widespread during the years just before and on into the regime of Muhammad Ali Pasha. Furthermore, he describes three series of provincial rebellions which were significantly larger and better organized than any that preceded them. These three series of rebellions, which are associated with the village of as-Salimiyyah between Qina and Farshut in 1820–1821, with that of al-Ba'irat opposite Luqsur in 1822–1823, and with virtually the whole of Qina province in 1824, illustrate both that a very large number of people in this region would actively support an antigovernment leader during the 1820s and that these people were willing and able to establish effective and legitimate governmental institutions of their own on a local level.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 13 , Issue 2 , May 1981 , pp. 131 - 153
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Author' note: Robert Jervis and Judith Goldstein made suggestions which improved this study considerably.

1 Eric, Hobsbawm discusses this sort of social protest in his Primitive Rebels (New York: Norton, 1959).Google Scholar

2 Gabriel, Baer, Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), p. 97.Google Scholar

3 Such views are criticized in Edward, Thompson, “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century,” Past and Present, 50 (02 1971), 76–79.Google Scholar

4 Baer, , Studies, p. 108.Google Scholar

5 On the importance of power in social historical studies, see Tony, Judt, “A Clown in Regal Purple: Social History and the Historians,” History Workshop, 7 (Spring 1979), 66–94;Google Scholar on this particular definition of power, see George, Catlin, Systematic Politics (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962);Google Scholar for a study which demonstrates the politics of a supposedly nonpolitical group, see Temma, Kaplan, Anarchists of Andalusia, 1868–1903 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977).Google Scholar

6 See Rod, Aya, “Theories of Revolution Reconsidered: Contrasting Models of Collective Violence,” Theory and Society, 8 (07 1979), 39–99;Google ScholarSteven, Lukes, Power: A Radical View (London: Macmillan, 1974).Google Scholar

7 Baer, , Studies, p. 97.Google Scholar

8 Helen, Rivlin, The Agricultural Policy ofMuhammadAli in Egypt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961), pp. 52–53;Google ScholarStanford, Shaw, Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 1966), pp. 118–122;Google ScholarAndré, Raymond, Artisans et Commerçants au Caire au X Ville Siàcle (Damascus: Institut Français de Damas, 1973–1974), 1, 103;Google Scholar see also Alan, Richards, “Egypt's Agriculture in Trouble,” MERIP Reports, 84 (01 1980), 3–13.Google Scholar

9 Sauveur, Lusignan, A History of the Revolt of Ali Bey (London: James Phillips, 1784), p. 24.Google Scholar

10 John, J. A. St., Egypt and Nubia (London: Chapman and Hall, 1845), p. 345.Google Scholar

11 Vivant, Denon, Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt (New York: Arno Press, 1973), II, 25.Google Scholar

12 Charles, Irby and James, Mangles, Travels in Egypt and Nubia (London: John Murray, 1844), p. 40;Google ScholarJohn, J. A. St., Isis: An Egyptian Pilgrimage (London: Longman, 1853), II, 266–267.Google Scholar

13 lrby, and Mangles, , Travels, pp. 39–40.Google Scholar

14 Douin, G. and Fawtier-Jones, E. C., L'Angleierre et l'égypte: La Politique Mameluke (Cairo: Société Royale de Géographic d'égypte, 1929), 1, 416.Google Scholar

15 Denon, , Travels, I, 318.Google Scholar

16 Girard, P. S., “Mémoire sur l'Agriculture et le Commerce de la Haute égypte,” La Décade égyptienne (Beirut: Librairie Byblos, n.d.), pp. 48–53.Google Scholar

17 Douin, and Fawtier-Jones, , L'Angleterre, 1, 411.Google Scholar

18 Ed. de, Montule, Voyage en Amerique, en Italie, en Sicile et en égypte (Paris: Delauney, 1821), p. 273;Google ScholarJames, Bruce, Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh: A. Constable and Co., 1805), II, 23 and 10;Google ScholarDenon, , Travels, 2, 139.Google Scholar

19 Henry, Light, Travels in Egypt, Nubia … in the year 1814 (London: Rodwell and Martin, 1818), pp. 46 and 104;Google ScholarBruce, , Travels, 2, 16.Google Scholar

20 Douin, and Fawtier-Jones, , L'Angleterre, 2 251.Google Scholar

21 Ibid I, 416.

22 Light, , Travels, p. 48.Google Scholar

23 St., John, Egypt and Nubia, p. 348.Google Scholar

24 Denon, , Travels, 1, 377;Google ScholarSt., John, Egypt and Nubia, p. 348;Google ScholarIrby, and Mangles, , Travels, p. 47;Google ScholarGirard, , “Mémoire,” p. 49;Google ScholarHeyworth-Dunne, J., “A Selection of Cairo's Street Cries,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 9 (1938), 353.Google Scholar

25 Denon, , Travels, 2, 199.Google Scholar

26 Rousseau, M. F., Kléber et Menou en Egypte (Paris: Alphonse Picard, 1900), p. 38.Google ScholarDenon, , Travels, 2, 138.Google Scholar

27 Light, , Travels, p.42;Google ScholarRodkey, F. S., “Colonel Campbell's Report on Egypt in 1840,” Cambridge Historical Journal, 3 (1929), 114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

28 lgnatius, Pallme, Travels in Kordofan (London: J. Madden, 1844), p. 41.Google Scholar

29 lrby, and Mangles, , Travels, p. 5;Google ScholarPallme, , Travels, p. 255.Google Scholar

30 John, St., Egypt and Nubia, p. 344;Google ScholarBruce, , Travels, 2, 61.Google Scholar

31 It is significant for the argument of this paper that Kordofan to the south of Nubia produced basically identical crops to those of Upper Egypt and earned on similar trading relationships with Cairo and Lower Egypt, but did not rise in rebellion against Egypt's central government during the period under consideration. See Pallme, , Travels, 2, 218.Google Scholar

32 John, St., Isis, 2, 120;Google ScholarDenon, , Travels, 2, 226.Google Scholar

33 Armando, Cortesao, ed., The Summa Oriental of Tome Pires (London: Hakluyt Society, 1944), pp. 12–13.Google Scholar

34 William, Foster, ed., The Red Sea and Adjacent Countries at the Close of the Seventeenth Century as Described by Joseph Pitts. William Daniel and Charles Jacques Poncet (London: Hakluyt Society, 1949), p. 11.Google Scholar

35 Cortesao, , Summa Oriental, p. 16.Google Scholar

36 Volney, C.-F., Travels through Egypt and Syria in the years 1783, 1784 and 1785 (New York: John Tiebout, 1798), 1, 135;Google ScholarFrederick, Hasselquist, Voyages and Travels in the Levant (London: L. Davis and C. Reymers, 1766), pp. 82–83;Google ScholarDavid, Kimche, “The Opening of the Red Sea to European Ships in the Late Eighteenth Century,” Middle Eastern Studies, 8 (01 1972), 65.Google Scholar

37 Denon, , Travels, 2, 27.Google Scholar

38 Terence, Walz, “Egypt in Africa,” International Journal of African Historical Studies, 8 (1975), 659.Google Scholar

39 de, Montule, Voyage, 2, 271.Google Scholar

40 Edward, Lane, The Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London: Dent, 1908), p. 319.Google Scholar

41 Madden, R. R., Travels in Turkey, Egypt, Nubia and Palestine (London: Henry Colburn, 1829), II, 208.Google Scholar

42 Denon, , Travels, 2, 350;Google ScholarCortesao, , Summa Oriental, p. 17;Google ScholarAhmad, al-Hittah, Tarikh Misr alIqtisadifi Qarn at-Tasi' Ashr (Cairo: Matba'ah al-Misri, 1967), pp. 215–216.Google Scholar

43 Denon, , Travels, 2, 302.Google Scholar

44 [Anonymous], Travels of Ali Bey (Philadelphia: John Conrad, 1816), II, 163.Google Scholar

45 Bruce, , Travels, 1, cclxxv.Google Scholar

46 Ibid., II, 54.

47 Abir, M., “The ‘Arab Rebellion’ of Amir Ghalib of Mecca (1788–1813),” Middle Eastern Studies, 7 (05 1971), 193;CrossRefGoogle ScholarDenon, , Travels, 2, 296.Google Scholar

48 Girard, , “Mémoire,” pp. 54–55;Google Scholarcf., William R. Hamilton, Remarks on Several Parts of Turkey: Aegyptica (London: T. Payne, 1809), p. 421.Google Scholar

49 Raymond, , Artisans et Commerçants, 1, 149.Google Scholar

50 Browne, W. G., Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, from the ear 1792 to 1798 (London: T. Cadell Junior and W. Davies, 1799), p. 145.Google Scholar

51 Stanford, J. Shaw, The Financial and Administrative Organization and Development of Ottoman Egypt, 1517–1798 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962), p. 106.Google Scholar

52 Shaw, , Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution, p. 133;Google ScholarJean-Claude Garcin, cf., Un Centre Musulman de Ia Haute-égypte Médiévale: Qus (Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, 1976).Google Scholar

53 Terence, Walz, Trade between Egypt and Bilad as-Sudan (Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, 1978), p. 224n;Google ScholarDenon, , Travels, 2, 243.Google Scholar

54 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat ar-Tawfiqiyyah aI-Jadidah (Bulaq edition), 10, 72.Google Scholar

55 Abir, , “The ‘Arab Rebellion’,” p. 193.Google Scholar

56 Travels of Ali Bey, II, 50.Google Scholar

57 Abir, , “The ‘Arab Rebellion’,” p. 197;Google ScholarTravels of Ali Bey, II, 162.Google Scholar

58 Pallme, , Travels, p. 289.Google Scholar

59 de, Montule, Voyage, 2, 218.Google Scholar

60 Lusignan, , History, p. 57.Google Scholar

61 Walz, , Trade, p. 34.Google Scholar

62 Ibid., p. 37.

63 Ibid., p. 48.

64 Lane, , Manners, p. 319.Google Scholar

65 Walz, , Trade, p. 30.Google Scholar

66 Walz, , “Egypt in Africa,” p. 657.Google Scholar

67 Walz, , Trade, pp. 232–233 and 235.Google Scholar

68 Ibid., p. 246.

69 de, Montule, Voyage, 2, 198.Google Scholar

70 Madden, , Travels, 2, 126.Google Scholar

71 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 11, 14.Google Scholar

72 John, St., Isis, 2, 118.Google Scholar

73 Denon, , Travels, 2, 300–301.Google Scholar

74 Ibid., p. 27.

75 Ibid., p. 31.

76 Foster, , The Red Sea, p. 107;Google ScholarPallme, , Travels, pp. 283–287;Google ScholarBruce, , Travels, 1, xcvi.Google Scholar

77 Bruce, , Travels, 4, 250;Google ScholarWalz, , Trade, p. 40.Google Scholar

78 For the political importance of artisan groups, see Thompson, E. P., The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968);Google ScholarChristopher, Hill, The World Turned Upside Down (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1975);Google ScholarCharles, Tilly, The Vendée (New York: Wiley, 1964);Google Scholar and his review of Hobsbawm, and Rudé, , Captain Swing in the Journal of Social History, 4 (Winter 1970–1971), 163–167.Google Scholar

79 Richard, Pococke, A Description of the East (London: W. Bowyer, 1743), 1, 87;Google Scholarde, Montule, Voyage, 2, 193.Google Scholar

80 Denon, , Travels, 3, 42–44.Google Scholar

81 Irby, and Mangles, , Travels, p. 37.Google Scholar

82 Pococke, , Description, 1, 84.Google Scholar

83 Girard, , “Memoire,” p. 81.Google Scholar

84 Pallme, , Travels, p. 255.Google Scholar

85 Pococke, , Description, 1, 87.Google Scholar

86 Pallme, , Travels, p. 254.Google Scholar

87 Denon, , Travels, 3, 63.Google Scholar

88 Travels of Ali Bey, II, 113.Google Scholar

89 Alain, Silvera, “Edme-Francois Jomard and Egyptian Reforms. in 1839,” Middle Eastern Studies 7 (10 1971), 310.Google Scholar

90 Moustafa, Fahmy, La Révolution de l'Industrie en égypte et ses Conséquences Sociales 19e Siàcle (1800–1850) (Leiden: Brill, 1954), p. 2;Google ScholarCrouchley, A. E., “The Development of in the Reign of Mohamed Ali,” L'Egypte Contemporaine, 28 (1937), 311.Google Scholar

91 Becker, C.H., “Asyut,” Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed. (Leiden: Brill), I, 728–729.Google Scholar

92 Pococke, , Description, 1, 174.Google Scholar

93 Foster, , The Red Sea, p. 93.Google Scholar

94 Bruce, , Travels, 2, 9.Google Scholar

95 Shaw, , Ottoman Egypt, p. 131;Google ScholarAli, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 16, 78.Google Scholar

96 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 11, 14.Google Scholar

97 Shaw, , Ottoman Egypt, p. 131.Google Scholar

98 Abd, al-Rahim Abd al-Rahman, Village in Ottoman Egypt and Tokugawa Japan–A Comparative Study (Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, 1977), p. 52.Google Scholar

99 Denon, , Travels, 2, 240.Google Scholar

100 Douin, and Fawtier-Jones, , L'Anglererre, 1, 417;Google ScholarShaw, , Ottoman Egypt, p. 131;Google ScholarOwen, E. R. J., Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 1829–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 6.Google Scholar

101 Douin, and Fawtier-Jones, , L'Angleterre, 1, 417.Google Scholar

102 Shaw, , Ottoman Egypt, p. 131.Google Scholar

103 Owen, , Cotton, p. 6.Google Scholar

104 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 8, 59.Google Scholar

105 Hasselquist, , Voyages, p. 109.Google Scholar

106 Pallme, , Travels, pp. 253–254.Google Scholar

107 Owen, , Cotton, p. 7.Google Scholar

108 Charles, Issawi, ed., Tile Economic History of tile Middle East 1800–1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 399.Google Scholar

109 Volney, , Travels, 1, 120;Google ScholarLusignan, , History, p. 17;Google ScholarSonnini, C. S., Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt (London: J. Debrett, 1800), p. 669;Google ScholarLight, , Travels, pp. 71 and 96.Google Scholar

110 Bruce, , Travels, 2: 23.Google Scholar

111 Subhi, Labib, “Egyptian Commercial Policy in the Middle Ages,” in Cook, M. A., ed., Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 73.Google Scholar

112 Pococke, , Description, 1, 173–174.Google Scholar

113 Volney, , Travels, 1, 143.Google Scholar

114 Rodkey, , “Colonel Campbell's Report,” p. 113.Google Scholar

115 Walz, , “Egypt in Africa,” p. 663.Google Scholar

116 Walz, , Trade, p. 40 and note.Google Scholar

117 Pallme, , Travels, pp. 221 and 253.Google Scholar

118 Crouchley, , “Development,” p. 306.Google Scholar

119 Douin, and Fawtier-Jones, , L'Angleterre, 1, 173, 184, 200, and 241.Google Scholar

120 Pococke, , Description, 1, 173–174;Google ScholarLusignan, , History, p. 24.Google Scholar

121 Hasselquist, , Voyages, p. 397;Google ScholarVolney, , Travels, 1, 143;Google ScholarRalph, Davis, Aleppo and Devonshire Square (London: Macmillan, 1967), p. 202.Google Scholar

122 Jean-Baptiste, Trécourt, Mémoires sur l'égypte (Cairo: La Société Royale de Géographic d'égypte, 1942), pp. 85–86;Google ScholarDouin, and Fawtier-Jones, , L-Angleterre, 1, 418 and 419;Google ScholarCrouchley, , “Development,” p. 316.Google Scholar

123 Judith, B. Williams, British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion, 1750–1850 (Oxford: Oxford Univeristy Press, 1972), p. 106.Google Scholar

124 Jerome, Lobo, A Voyage to Abyssinia (London: A. Bettesworth and C. Hitch, 1735), p. 183.Google Scholar

125 Walz, , Trade, p. 224.Google Scholar

126 Walz, , “Egypt in Africa,” p. 659.Google Scholar

127 Murad, Kamil, “Letters to Ethiopia,” Bulletin de Ia Société d'Archéologie Copte, 8 (1942), 89–140.Google Scholar

128 Michel, Morineau and Charles, Carriere, “Draps du Langedoc et Commerce du Levant au XVIlle Siàcle,” Revue de Histoire économique et sociale, 46 (1968), 117.Google Scholar

129 Browne, , Travels, p. 9;Google ScholarAbir, , “The ‘Arab Rebellion’,” p. 195.Google Scholar

130 Trécourt, , Memoires, p. 81.Google Scholar

131 Ibid., pp. 86–87.

132 Heinz-Theo, Niephaus, Genuas Seehandel von 1746–1848 (Köln: Bohlau Verlag, 1975), p. 339.Google Scholar

133 Ruggiero, Romano, Le Commerce du Royaume de Naples (Paris: Armand Colin, 1951), pp. 26 and 20–21.Google Scholar

134 Jules, Julliany, Essai sur le Commerce de Marseille (Marseille: Jules Barile, 1842), II, 310 and 358.Google Scholar

135 Ibid., p. 357.

136 édouard, Driault, La Formation de l'Empire de Mohamed Aly (Cairo: Société Royahe de Géographic d'égypte, 1927), p. 274.Google Scholar

137 Vernon, J. Puryear, France and the Levant (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1941), p. 33 n. 33;Google ScholarRalph, Davis, The Industrial Revolution and Brirish Overseas Trade (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1979), especially pp. 19–20.Google Scholar

138 Crouchley, , “Development,” pp. 316–317.Google Scholar

139 Lane, , Manners, p. 319.Google Scholar

140 John, St., Isis, 1, 293.Google Scholar

141 Williams, , British Commercial Policy, p. 106.Google Scholar

142 Ibid., p. 112n.

143 Ibid., pp. 107–108.

144 Travels of Ali Bey, II, 50;Google ScholarWalz, , Trade, p. 40.Google Scholar

145 Abd, al-Rahman, Village, p. 60.Google Scholar

146 Williams, , British Commercial Policy, p. 300.Google Scholar

147 Ibid., p. 113.

148 Madden, , Travels, 1, 247.Google Scholar

149 Rodkey, , “Colonel Campbell's Report,” p. 113;Google ScholarPallme, , Travels, pp. 297–299.Google Scholar

150 Peter, Gran, Islamic Roots of Capitalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979), p. 212;Google ScholarRaymond, , Artisans et Commerçants, 1, 268–270;Google ScholarRivlin, , Agricultural Policy, p. 195.Google Scholar

151 Lane, , Manners, p. 316.Google Scholar

152 Owen, , Cotton, p. 19.Google Scholar

153 Puryear, , France, p. 33 n. 28.Google Scholar

154 Puryear, , “Odessa: Its Rise and International Importance,” Pacific Historical Review, 3 (06 1934), 197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

155 Puryear, , France, p. 33 n. 28;Google ScholarPuryear, , “Odessa,” p. 194 n. 6.Google Scholar

156 de Tegoborski, M L., Commentaries on the Productive Forces of Russia (London: Longman, 1856), II, 329;Google ScholarRené Cattaui, cf., ed., Le Ràgne de Mohamed Aly d'apràs Les Archives Russes en égypte (Cairo: Société Royale de Géographie d'égypte, 1931), 1, 20–21.Google Scholar

157 Owen, , Cotton, pp. 25–26.Google Scholar

158 James, E. Swain, The Struggle for the Control of the Mediterranean Prior to 1848 (Philadelphia: Stratford, 1933), p. 59.Google Scholar

159 Julliany, , Essai, 2, 356;Google ScholarRoger Price, cf., The Economic Modernisation of France (New York: Wiley, 1975), p. 96.Google Scholar

160 de, Tegoborski, Commentaries, 11, 321.Google Scholar

161 On the logic of nonmarket peasant agriculture, see Witold, Kula, An Economic Theory of the Feudal System (London: New Left Books, 1976).Google Scholar

162 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 14, 68.Google Scholar

163 Madden, , Travels, 2, 34.Google Scholar

164 See Eric, Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century (New York: Harper and Row, 1969);Google ScholarWolf, , “Peasant Rebellion and Revolution,” in Norman, Miller and Roderick, Aya, eds., National Liberation (New York: The Free Press, 1971);Google ScholarBarrington, Moore Jnr, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966);Google ScholarAya, , “Theories of Revolution,” p. 74.Google Scholar

165 Williams, , British Commercial Policy, p. 364.Google Scholar

166 For some theoretical problems in using this reasoning in explaining revolutions, see Aya, “Theories of Revolution”; Charles, Tilly, “Revolutions and Collective Violence,” in Fred, Greenstein and Nelson, Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), III, 483–555.Google Scholar

167 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 12, 44.Google Scholar

168 John, St., Egypt and Nubia, pp. 381–383.Google Scholar Isna's fortifications at this time are shown clearly in a view of the town in Frederic, L. Norden, The Antiquities, Natural History, Ruins, and Other Curiosities of Egypt, Nubia, and Thebes (London: E. Jeffery, 1792), p. 121.Google Scholar

169 édouard, Driault, L'Expédition de Cràte et de Morée (Cairo: La Société Royale de Géographie d'égypte, 1930), p. 13.Google Scholar

170 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 11, 44;Google ScholarBruce, , Travels, 2, 24.Google Scholar

171 Sonnini, , Travels, pp. 668 and 649;Google ScholarPococke, , Description, 1, 99 and 124;Google ScholarLight, , Travels, p. 108;Google ScholarBruce, , Travels, 2, 33.Google Scholar

172 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 11, 14.Google Scholar

173 Rivlin, , Agricultural Policy, pp. 201–202;Google ScholarBaer, , Studies, pp. 96–99;Google ScholarAlan, R. Richards, “Primitive Accumulation in Egypt, 1798–1882,” Review, 1 (Fall 1977); 22:Google ScholarGran, , Islamic Roots, p. 122.Google Scholar

174 Baer, , Studies, p. 97;Google ScholarDenon, , Travels, 2, 32.Google Scholar

175 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 12, 44;Google ScholarBaer, , Studies, p. 96.Google Scholar

176 Ali, Mubarak, al-Khitat, 14, 75.Google Scholar

177 John, St., Egypt and Nubia, p. 381.Google Scholar

178 Ibid., p. 379.

179 Compare, for example, Bindoff, S. T., Ket's Rebellion (London: The Historical Association, 1949); Hill, World Turned Upside Down.Google Scholar

180 Poliak, A. N., “Les Révoltes Populaires en égypte a l'époque des Mamelouks,” Revue des études Islamiques, 3 (1934), 251–273.Google Scholar

181 Denon, , Travels, 1, 366 and II, 27;Google ScholarLight, , Travels, pp. 74–75.Google Scholar

182 This engagement is still remembered today in a cycle of folk songs commemorating the victory of the townspeople over the forces of Napoleon.

183 Sayyid, Mustafa Salim, Nusus Yamaniyyah 'an al-Hamlah al-Faransiyyah 'ala Misr (Sana': Center for Yamani Studies, 1975), p. 99;Google ScholarDenon, , Travels, 12, 198.Google Scholar

184 Salim, , Nusus, p. 100.Google Scholar

185 John, St., Egypt and Nubia, p. 383.Google Scholar

186 Denon, , Travels, 3, 31.Google Scholar

187 For a similar argument, see Hill, , World Turned Upside Down; Hill, , “From Lollards to Levellers,” in Cornforth, M., ed., Rebels and Their Causes (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1978);Google ScholarChalmers, A. Johnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power: The Emergence of Revolutionary China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1962).Google Scholar

188 Samuel, Clark, “The Importance of Agrarian Classes,” British Journal of Sociology, 29 (03 1978), 22–40.Google Scholar

189 See Abd, al-Rahman, Village, pp. 27–28;Google ScholarGibb, H.A.R. and Harold, Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, Vol. 1, Part I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950), p. 263;Google ScholarAbd, al-Rahman and Yuzo, Nagata, “The Iltizam System in Egypt and Turkey,” Journal of Asian and African Studies, 14 (1977), 178;Google ScholarRoger, Owen, “al-Jabarti and the Economic History of Late Eighteenth Century Egypt,” in Ahmad, 'Izzat Abd al-Karim, ed., Abd ar-Rahman al-Jabarti (Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1976), pp. 24–25.Google Scholar

190 For the growth of large estates in Egypt between 1815 and 1845, see Ali, Barakat, Tatawwur al-Milkiyyat az-Zi'ra'iyyah fi Misr (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafah al-Jadidah, 1977);Google ScholarGabriel, Baer, A History of Landownership in Modern Egypt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962);Google ScholarRivlin, , Agricultural Policy, p. 73;Google ScholarYacoub, Artin-Bey, La Propriété Fonciàre en égypte (Cairo: lmprimerie Nationale, 1883);Google ScholarE. A. Kosminsky, cf., “Service and Money Rents in the Thirteenth Century,” Economic History Review, 1st series, 5 (04 1935), 24–45;CrossRefGoogle ScholarJairus, Banaji, “The Peasantry rn the Feudal Mode of Production: Towards an Economic Model,” The Journal of Peasant Studies, 3 (04 1976), 299–320.Google Scholar

191 Crouchley, , “Development,” p. 311.Google Scholar

192 The apparent lack of interest among the rebels in any land issues, such as redistribution of holdings, may indicate the extent of freeholder and artisan influence within the rebellions. Rich peasants would not be interested in challenges to established land practices.

193 For this conception, see Aya, “Theories of Revolution.”

194 As Aya, remarks (“Theories of Revolution,” pp. 68–69),Google Scholar this perspective is closer to von Clausewitz than it is to most other treatments of collective violence – including Edward Thompson's, which emphasizes the moral or legitimizing aspects of popular revolt; Richard Johnson, cf., “Edward Thompson, Eugene Genovese, and Socialist-Humanist History,” History Workshop, 6 (Autumn 1978), 79–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar