Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T04:21:36.745Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Schizophrenia and Antipsychotic Somatic Treatment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 March 2009

Leif H. Lindström  and
Ing-Marie Wieselgren
Leif H. Lindström
Affiliation:
University of Uppsala
Ing-Marie Wieselgren
Affiliation:
University of Uppsala
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Schizophrenia typically affects individuals in early life and leads to long-term suffering at high cost to both the individual and the community. Structural, functional, and biochemical factors may play a role in the pathogenesis, and perhaps the course, of schizophrenia. Although early research into the treatment of schizophrenia was not fruitful, the results of recent research, particularly the use of narcoleptics combined with new clinical appreciation of psychosocial factors in chronic psychotic disorders, give reason for hope and optimism.

Type
Special Section: The Assessment of Psychiatry
Information
International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care , Volume 12 , Issue 4 , Fall 1996 , pp. 573 - 584
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Allgulander, C.Psychoactive drug use in a general population sample, Sweden: Correlates with perceived health, psychiatric diagnoses, and mortality in an automated record-linkage study. American Journal of Public Health, 1989, 79, 1006–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-III). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980.Google Scholar
3.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-III-R). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1987.Google Scholar
4.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-VI). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.Google Scholar
5.Andreasen, N. C.Positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia: A critical evaluation. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1985, 11, 380–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Andrews, G., Hall, W., Goldstein, G., et al. The economic costs of schizophrenia: Implications for public policy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1985, 42, 537–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Bland, R. C., Parker, J. H., & Orn, H.Prognosis in schizophrenia: A ten year follow-up of first admission. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1976, 33, 949–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8.Bleuler, E. Dementia praecox oder die gruppe der schizophrenien. Zinkin, J. (trans.), Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias (1911). New York: International Universities Press, 1950.Google Scholar
9.Bleuler, M.The schizophrenic disorders: Long-term patients and family studies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978, 118–211.Google Scholar
10.Boczkowski, J. A., Zeichner, A., & Santoa, D.Neuroleptic compliance among chronic schizophrenic outpatients: An intervention outcome report. 1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11.Bogerts, B., Ashtari, M., Degreef, G., et al. Reduced temporal limbic structure volumes on magnetic resonance images in first episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 1990, 35, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12.Bollini, P., Pampallona, S., Orza, M. J., et al. Antipsychotic drugs: Is more worse? A meta-analysis of published randomized control trials. Psychological Medicine, 1994, 24 307–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Brown, G. W., Birley, J. L. T., & Wing, J. K.Influence of family life on the course of schizophrenic disorders: A replication. British Journal Psychiatry, 1972, 160, 836–44.Google Scholar
14.Buchsbaum, M. S.The frontal lobes, basal ganglia, and temporal lobes as sites for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1990, 16, 377–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Cardin, V., McGill, C., & Falloon, I.Economic analysis: Costs, benefits and effectiveness in family management of schizophrenia: A study of clinical, social and economic benefit. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1985.Google Scholar
16.Carlsson, A., & Lindqvist, M.Effect of chlorpromazine and haloperidol on formation of 3-methoxytyramin and normetanephrine in mouse brain. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica, 1963, 20, 140–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Cerletti, U., & Bini, L.Un nuevo metodo di shockterapie ‘Felletroshock.’ Bolletin Achad Med Roma, 1938, 64, 136–38.Google Scholar
18.Ciompi, L.Catamnestic long-term study on the course of life and aging of schizophrenics. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1980, 6, 606–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Claghorn, J., Honigfeld, G., Abuzzahab, F. S., et al. The risks and benefits of clozapine versus chlorpromazine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 1987, 7, 377–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Crow, T. J.Molecular pathology of schizophrenia: More than one disease process? British Medical Journal, 1980, 280, 66–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21.Crow, T. J.Neurohumoural and structural changes in schizophrenia: Two dimensions of pathology. Progress in brain research, 1982, 55, 407–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22.Crow, T. J.The two-syndrome concept: Origins and current status. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1985, 11, 471–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Davis, J. M.Overview: Maintenance therapy in psychiatry, I: Schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1975, 132, 1237–45.Google ScholarPubMed
24.Davis, J. M., Kane, J. M., Marder, S. R., et al. Dose response of prophylactic antipsychotics. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 1993, 53(Suppl. 3), 24–30.Google Scholar
25.Davis, K. L., Kahn, R. S., Ko, G., & Davidson, M.Dopamine and schizophrenia: A review and conceptualization. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 1474–86.Google Scholar
26.de Jesus Mari, J., & Streiner, D. L.An overview of family interventions and relapse on schizophrenia: Meta-analysis of research findings. Psychological Medicine, 1994, 24, 565–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27.Delay, J., Deniker, P., & Harl, J. M.Utilisation en thérapeutique psychiatrique d'une phenothiazine d'action centrale élective. Annales de la Medicine Psychologicale, 1952, 110, 112–17.Google ScholarPubMed
28.Denker, S. J., Malm, U., & Lepp, M.Schizophrenic relapse after drug-withdrawal is predictable. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1986, 73, 181–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Eaton, W. W.Update on the epidemiology of schizophrenia. Epidemiology Review, 1991, 13, 320–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Ekblom, B., & Häggström, J.-E.Clozapine (Leponex) compared with chlorpromazine: A double-blind evaluation of pharmacological and clinical properties. Current Therapeutic Research, 1974, 16, 945–57.Google ScholarPubMed
31.Falloon, I. R., Boyd, J. L., McGill, C. W., et al. Family management in the prevention of morbidity of schizophrenia: Clinical outcome of a two-year longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1985, 42, 887–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Farde, L., Nordstrom, A. L., Wiesel, F. A., et al. Positron emission tomographic analysis of central Dl and D2 dopamine receptor occupancy in patients treated with classical neuroleptics and clozapine: Relation to extrapyramidal side effects. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1992, 49, 538–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Farde, L., Wiesel, F. A., Hall, H., et al. No D2 receptor increase in PET study of schizophrenia (letter). Archives of General Psychiatry, 1987, 44, 671–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Gelefnter, J., & van Kammen, D. P.Schizophrenia: Instability in norepinephrine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid system. International Review of Neurobiology, 1988, 29, 309–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Gerlach, J., Koppelhus, P., Helweg, E., & Monrad, A.Clozapine and haloperidol in a single-blind cross-over trial: Therapeutic and biochemical aspects in the treatment of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1974, 50, 410–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36.Gilbert, P. L., Harris, M. J., McAdams, L. A., & Jeste, D. V.Neuroleptic withdrawal in schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1995, 52, 173–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37.Glazer, W. M., & Kane, J. M.Depot neuroleptic therapy: An underutilized treatment option. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 1992, 53, 426–33.Google ScholarPubMed
38.Goldberg, T. E., Greenberg, R. D., Griffin, S. J., et al. The effect of clozapine on cognition and psychiatric symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1993, 162, 43–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Gottesman, I. I.Schizophrenia genesis: The origins of madness. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1991, 94–97.Google Scholar
40.Hagger, C., Buckley, P., Kenny, J. T., et al. Improvement in cognitive functions and psychiatric symptoms in treatment-refractory schizophrenic patients receiving clozapine. Biological Psychiatry, 1993, 34, 702–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41.Hagnell, O., Ojesjö, L., Otterbeck, L., & Rorsman, B.Prevalence of mental disorders, personality traits and mental complaints in the Lundby study. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine, 1994, 50 (suppl.), 14–26.Google ScholarPubMed
42.Harding, C. M., Brooks, G. W., Ashikaga, T., et al. The Vermont longitudinal study of persons with severe mental illness, II: Long-term outcome of subjects who retrospectively met DSM-III criteria for schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1987, 144, 727–35.Google ScholarPubMed
43.Hare, H. E., & Willcox, D. R. C.Do psychiatric patients take their pills? British Journal of Psychiatry, 1967, 113, 1453–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44.Hegarty, J. D., Baldessarini, R. J., Tohen, M., et al. One hundred years of schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of the outcome literature. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1994, 151, 1409–16.Google ScholarPubMed
45.Helgason, T.Epidemiology of mental disorders in Iceland. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1964.Google ScholarPubMed
46.Herz, M. I., Glazer, W. M., & Moster, M. A.Intermittent medication vs. maintenance medication in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1991, 48, 333–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Heston, L. L.Psychiatric disorders in home reared children of schizophrenic mothers. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1966, 112, 819–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Hogarty, G. E.Prevention of relapse in chronic schizophrenic patients. Journal Clinical Psychiatry, 1993, 53(suppl. 3), 18–23.Google Scholar
49.Hogarty, G. E., Anderson, C. M., Reiss, D. J., et al. Family psychoeducation, social skills training, and maintenance chemotherapy in the aftercare treatment of schizophrenia, I: One-year effects of a controlled study on relapse and expressed emotion. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1986, 43, 633–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50.Hogarty, G. E., Anderson, C. M., Reiss, D. J., et al. Family psychoeducation, social skills training, and maintenance chemotherapy in the aftercare treatment of schizophrenia, II: Two-year effects of a controlled study on relapse and adjustment. Environmental-Personal Indicators in the Course of Schizophrenia (EPICS) Research Group. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1991, 48, 340–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Hogarty, G. E., McEvoy, J. P., Munetz, M., et al. Dose of fluphenazine, familial expressed emotion, and outcome in schizophrenia: Results of a two-year controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1988, 45, 797–805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52.Hughlings-Jackson, J. In Taylor, J. (ed.), Selected writings. London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd., 1931.Google Scholar
53.Jabalensky, A.Multicultural studies and the nature of schizophrenia: A review. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1987, 80, 162–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54.Jolley, A. G., Hirsch, S. R., Morrison, E., et al. Trial of brief intermittent neuroleptic prophylaxis for selected schizophrenic outpatients: Clinical and social outcome at two years. British Medical Journal, 1990, 301, 837–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55.Kane, J. M., Dauphinais, D., Barnes, T. R., et al. Assessing negative symptoms and extrapyramidal symptoms in schizophrenia: Workshop report. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 1993, 29, 45–49.Google ScholarPubMed
56.Kane, J. M., Honigfeld, G., Singer, J., & Meltzer, H. Y.Clozapine for the treatment-resistant schizophrenic: A double-blind comparison with chlorpromazine. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1988, 45, 789–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.Kane, J. M., & Marder, S. R.Psychopharmacologic treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1993, 19, 287–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Kane, J. M., Woerner, M., & Sarantakos, S.Depot neuroleptics: A comparative review of standard, intermediate, and low-dose regimens. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 1986, 47(Suppl.), 30–33.Google ScholarPubMed
59.Kraepelin, E.Dementia precox and paraphrenia. New York: Krieger, 1919.Google Scholar
60.Kuha, S., & Miettinen, E.Long-term effect of clozapine in schizophrenia: A retrospective study of 108 chronic schizophrenics treated with clozapine for up to 7 years. Journal of Nordic Psychiatry, 1986, 40, 225–30.Google Scholar
61.Lethinen, V., Väisänen, E., Alanen, Y. O., & Tienari, P.Preventive implications of a social-psychiatric survey in the Finnish population. Psychiatrica Fennica, 1978, 78, 143–51.Google Scholar
62.Liberman, R. P., Mueser, K. T., & Wallace, C. J.Social skills training for schizophrenic individuals at risk for relapse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1986, 143, 523–26.Google ScholarPubMed
63.Lindström, L. H.The effect of long-term treatment with clozapine in schizophrenia: A retrospective study in 96 patients treated with clozapine for up to 13 years. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1988, 77, 524–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.Lindström, L. H.Long-term clinical and social outcome studies in schizophrenia in relation to the cognitive and emotional side effects of antipsychotic drugs. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1994, suppl. 380, 74–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65.Marder, S. R.Costs and benefits of two doses of fluphenazine. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1985, 41, 1025–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66.Matz, R., Rick, W., Oh, D., et al. Clozapine, a potential antipsychotic agent without extrapyramidal manifestation. Current Therapeutic Research, 1954, 16, 687–95.Google Scholar
67.McGlashan, T. H.A selective review of recent North American long-term followup studies of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1988, 14, 515–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68.McGlashan, T. H., & Fenton, W. S.The positive-negative distinction in schizophrenia: Review of natural history validators. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1992, 49, 63–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69.Meltzer, H. Y.Treatment of the neuroleptic-nonresponsive schizophrenic patient. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1992, 18, 515–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70.Meltzer, H. Y., Bastani, B., Kwon, K. Y., et al. A prospective study of clozapine in treatment-resistant schizophrenic patients, I: Preliminary report. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 1989, 99, 18–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71.Menzies, D.Pyrotherapy in dementia praecox. Lancet, 1935, 2, 992–96.Google Scholar
72.National Board of Health and Welfare, Drug Information Committee. Workshop: Treatment with neuroleptics. 1990.Google Scholar
73.Nordström, A. L., Farde, L., Wiesel, F. A., et al. Central D2-dopamine receptor occupancy in relation to antipsychotic drug effects: A double-blind PET study of schizophrenic patients. Biological Psychiatry, 1993, 33, 227–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74.Polvsen, V., Noring, V., Fog, R., & Gerlach, J.Tolerability and therapeutic effect of clozapine: A retrospective investigation of 216 patients treated with clozapine for up to 12 years. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1985, 71, 176–85.Google Scholar
75.Rosenthal, D., Wender, P. H., Kety, S. S., et al. The adopted-away offspring of schizophrenics. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1971, 128, 307–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76.Sakel, M.Schizophreniebehandlung mittels insulin-hypoglykamie sowie hypoglykämicher shock. Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 1935, 84, 1211–15.Google Scholar
77.Seeman, P., Lee, T., Chau-wong, M., & Wong, K.Antipsychotic drug-doses and neuroleptic/dopamine receptors. Nature, 1976, 261, 717–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78.Stern, M., Folsom, R. P., & Ritter, I. S.Vasectomy and its influence upon 100 cases of dementia praecox at Manhattan State Hospital. State Hospital Quarterly, 1925, 10, 404–12.Google Scholar
79.Strauss, J. S., Carpenter, W. T., & Bartko, J. J.An approach to the diagnosis and understanding of schizophrenia, III: Speculations on the process that underlies schizophrenia symptoms and signs. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1974, 11, 61–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80.Stuurman, F. J.Experimental adrenaline injections in insane patients. Nederlands Maandschr Genesk (Leiden), 1922, 11, 44–60.Google Scholar
81.Tarrier, N., Barrowclough, C., Vaughn, C., et al. Community management of schizophrenia: A controlled trial of a behavioural intervention with families to reduce relapse. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1988, 153, 532–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82.Tarrier, N., Barrowclough, C., Vaughn, C., et al. Community management of schizophrenia: A two year follow-up of a behavioural intervention with families. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1989, 154, 625–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83.Tarrier, N., Lownson, K., & Barrowclough, C.Some aspects of family interventions in schizophrenia, II: Financial considerations. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1989, 154, 481–84.Google Scholar
84.Van Horn, J. D., & McManus, I. C.Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: A metaanalysis of studies of the ventricle:brain ratio (VBR). British Journal of Psychiatry, 1992, 160, 687–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85.Van Putten, T.Why do schizophrenic patients refuse to take their drugs? Archives of General Psychiatry, 1974, 31, 67–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86.Van Putten, T., Marder, S. R., Wirshing, W. C., et al. Neuroleptic plasma levels. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1991, 17, 197–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87.Vaughn, C. E., & Leff, J. P.The influence of family and social factors on the course of psychiatric illness: A comparison of schizophrenic and depressed neurotic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1976, 129, 125–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88.von Meduna, L.Uber experimentelle campherepilepsie. Archives Psychiatrie, 1934, 102, 333–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89.Weinberger, D. R., & Berman, K. F.Speculation on the meaning of metabolic hypofrontality in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1988, 14, 157–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90.Weinberger, D. R., Berman, K. F., & Zee, R. F.Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia, I: Regional cerebral blood flow evidence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1986, 43, 114–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91.Wiederlöv, B., Borgå, P., et al. Epidemiology of long-term functional psychosis in three different areas in Stockholm County. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1989, 80, 40–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92.Wyatt, R. J.The dopamine hypothesis: Variations on a theme (II). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 1986, 22, 923–27.Google ScholarPubMed
93.Zibursky, R. B., Lim, K. O., & Sullivan, E. V.Widespread cerebral grey matter volume deficits in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1992, 49, 195–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
94.Zubin, J., Magaziner, J., & Steinhauer, S. R.The metamorphosis of schizophrenia: From chronicity to vulnerability. Psychology and Medicine, 1983, 13, 551–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed