Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T06:19:13.644Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Integrated Arthropod Pest Management Systems for Human Health Improvement in Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2011

Johann Baumgärtner ,
Fritz Schulthess  and
Yunlong Xia
Johann Baumgärtner
Affiliation:
International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), P. O. Box 17319, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Fritz Schulthess*
Affiliation:
Postfach 112-4, Chur, Switzerland
Yunlong Xia
Affiliation:
International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), P. O. Box 30772, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
*
Corresponding author: FS. E-mail: FSchulthess@swissonline.ch
Get access

Abstract

In a sub-Saharan African context, limited natural resources, infectious diseases, including those transmitted by arthropod vectors, and chronic exposure to food contaminated with mycotoxin-producing fungi which, among others, are vectored by insects, are among the major constraints to human health. Thus, pest control should be an important component in human health improvement projects. It appears that the advantages of preventive over curative methods are rarely recognised in Africa, with more emphasis being given to the search for the ‘silver bullet’ than to integrated control approaches. Integrated pest management (IPM) systems can be assigned to different decision-making levels as well as to different integration levels, combining ecological (individual pest species, species communities, species assemblages) and management (crop, cropping systems, farms, communities) levels with the respective control systems. These levels produce a highly structured environment for decision-making, in which the use of modern information technology is important. Case studies show that IPM systems are developed and implemented at four integration levels, whereby most work is done on the lowest integration level, addressing a single pest or pest complex attacking a particular crop, group of livestock or human population, and the respective control measures undertaken. Coordinated efforts to develop and implement supplementary IPM systems at higher levels are concluded to be important elements in integrated pest management and a further contribution to human health improvement and poverty alleviation.

Résumé

Dans le contexte de l'Afrique sub-Saharienne, les ressources naturelles limitées, les maladies infectieuses comprenant celles transmises par les arthropodes vecteurs, et l'exposition chronique aux aliments contaminés par les champignons produisant des mycotoxines lesquels, parmi d'autres, sont transmis par les insectes, font partie des contraintes majeures à la santé humaine. Ainsi, le contrôle des nuisibles devrait être une composante importante dans les projets d'amélioration de la santé humaine. Il apparaît cependant que les avantages des méthodes préventives par rapport aux méthodes curatives sont rarement reconnus en Afrique, avec plus d'attention accordée à la recherche de solutions miracles qu'aux approches de lutte intégrée. Les systèmes de lutte intégrée (LI) peuvent êtres attribués à plusieurs niveaux de décision aussi bien qu'à différents niveaux d'intégration, combinant les niveaux écologiques (nuisibles individuels, communautés d'espèces, assemblages d'espèces) et de gestion (culture, systèmes de culture, champs, communautés) avec les systèmes respectifs de contrôle. Ces niveaux produisent un environnement hautement structuré

Keywords

IPMhuman healthlivestockcropsinformation disseminationdecision making levels
Type
Mini Review
Information
International Journal of Tropical Insect Science , Volume 23 , Issue 2 , June 2003 , pp. 85 - 98
Copyright
Copyright © ICIPE 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ako, M., Schulthess, F., Gumedzoe, M. Y. D. and Cardwell, K. F. (2003) The effect of Fusarium verticillioides Sacc. (Nirenberg) on oviposition behaviour and bionomics of lepidopteran and coleopteran pests attacking the stem and cobs of maize in West Africa. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 106, 201–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alfaro, R. I., Brown, R. G., Mitchell, K. J., Poisson, K. R. and MacDonald, R. N. (1996) SWAT: A decision support system for spruce weevil management. FRDA Report 260, 31–41.Google Scholar
Anonymous (1996) Concise Science Dictionary. 3rd edition, Oxford University Press. 794 pp.Google Scholar
Bao, N. and Robinson, W. H. (1993) Computer aided decision support system for American cockroach management in the urban environment, pp. 393–399. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban Environment/International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban Environment, 30 June-3 July 1993, Cambridge, UK.Google Scholar
Baumgärtner, J. (2001) Biodiversity that mitigates pests in agroecosystems. In Biodiversity Planning Support Programs. Global Environment Facility. UNEP-BPSP Thematic Studies on the Integration of Biodiversity into National Agricultural Sectors. UNEP BPSP, Nairobi, Kenya.Google Scholar
Baumgärtner, J. and Gutierrez, A. P. (1988) Simulation techniques applied to crops and pest models, pp. 175–214. In Parasitis 88. Proceedings of a Scientific Congress, Barcelona, October 25–28 (Edited by Cavalloro, R. and Delucchi, V.). Boletin de Sanidad Vegetal, fuera de serie, 17.Google Scholar
Baumgärtner, J., Bieri, J., Buffoni, G., Gilioli, G., Gopalan, H. N. B., Greiling, J., Tikubet, G. and van Schayk, I. M. C. J. (2001) Human health management in subsanaran Africa through integrated management of arthropod transmitted diseases and natural resources. Cadernos de saúde pública (reports in public health) 17, 17–46.Google Scholar
Baumgärtner, J., Delucchi, V., von Arx, R. and Rubli, D. (1986) Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Genn., Stern., Aleyrodidae) infestation patterns as influenced by cotton, weather and Heliothis: Hypothesis testing by using simulation models. Agric., Ecosyst. Environ. 17, 49–59.Google Scholar
Baumgärtner, J., Getachew, T., Gilioli, G. and Bieri, M. (2002) The design and implementation of integrated disease and resource management schemes for human health improvement in sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings Ethio-Forum 2002, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (in press).Google Scholar
Baumgärtner, J., Regev, U., Rahalivavololona, N., Graf, B., Zahner, Ph. and Delucchi, V. (1989) Rice production in Madagascar: Regression analysis with particular reference to pest control. Agric., Ecosyst. Environ. 30, 37–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Begon, M., Harper, J. L. and Townsend, C. R. (1996) Ecology. 3rd edition. Blackwell Science, Oxford. 1068 pp.Google Scholar
Bonato, O., Schulthess, F. and Baumgärtner, J. (1999) Simulation model for maize crop growth based on acquisition and allocation functions for carbohydrate and nitrogen. Ecological Modelling 124, 13–28.Google Scholar
Cardwell, K. F. (2000) Mycotoxin contamination of foods in Africa: Anti-nutritional factors. Food Nutr. Bull. 21, 488–192.Google Scholar
Cardwell, K. F., Kling, J. G., Maziya-Dixon, B. and Bosque-Pérez, N. (2000) Interactions between Fusarium verticillioides, Aspergillus flavus and insects in improved maize populations in lowland Africa. Phytopathology 90, 276–284.Google Scholar
Cardwell, K. F., Schulthess, F., Ndemah, R. and Ngoko, Z. (1997) A systems approach to assess crop health and maize yield losses due to pest and diseases in Cameroon. Agric, Ecosyst. Environ. 65, 33–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compton, J. A. F., Tyler, P. S., Mumford, J. D., Norton, G. A., Jones, T. H. and Hindmarsh, P. S. (1992) Potential for an expert system on pest control in tropical grain stores. Trop. Sci. 32, 295–303.Google Scholar
Conlong, D. E. (1990) A study of pest-parasitoid relationships in natural habitats: An aid towards the biological control of Eldana saccharina (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Proc. S. Africa Sugar Technol. Assoc. 64, 111–115.Google Scholar
Conway, G.R. (1984) Introduction, pp. 1–11. In Pest and Pathogen Control. Strategic, Tactical and Policy Models (Edited by Conway, G.). Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Coop, L. B., Croft, B.A., Murphy, C. F. and Miller, S. F. (1991) Decision support system for economic analysis of grasshopper treatment operations in the African Sahel. Crop Prot. 10, 485–495.Google Scholar
Curry, G. L. and Feldman, R. M. (1987) Mathematical Foundations of Population Dynamics. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. 246 pp.Google Scholar
Daily, G. C. (1997) Nature's Services. Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington, DC. 416 pp.Google Scholar
De Groot, P., Schnekenburger, F., Fleming, R. A. and Turgeon, J. J. (1998) CONESYS: A data collection, database, and decision support system for making insect pest management decisions in seed orchards. Northern J. Appl. For. 15, 154–157.Google Scholar
Dent, D. (1995) Integrated Pest Management. Chapman & Hall, London. 356 pp.Google Scholar
Di Cola, G., Gilioli, G. and Baumgärtner, J. (1998) Mathematical models for age-structured population dynamics: An overview, pp. 45–61. In Population and Community Ecology for Insect Management and Conservation (Edited by Baumgärtner, J., Brandmayr, P. and Manly Bryan, B. F. J.). Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam.Google Scholar
Di Cola, G., Gilioli, G. and Baumgärtner, J. (1999) Mathematical models for age-structured population dynamics, pp. 503–536. In Ecological Entomology, 2nd edition (Edited by Huffaker, C. B. and Gutierrez, A. P.). Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Drapek, R. J., Calkin, J. A. and Fisher, G. C. (1990) A hazelnut pest management expert system. Acta Horticult. 276, 21–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehler, L.E. (2000) Farmscape ecology of stink bugs in Northern California. Entomol. Soc. America. 59 pp.Google Scholar
Eicher, C.K. (1999) Institutions and the African Farmer. Issues in Agriculture 14. CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), Washington.Google Scholar
El Gendi, S. M. (1998) Population fluctuations of Thrips tabaci Lind on onion plants under Fayoum environmental conditions. J. Agric. Sci. 6, 267–276.Google Scholar
Eveleens, K. G. (1983) Cotton-insect control in the Sudan Gezira: An analysis of a crisis. Crop Prot. 2, 273–287.Google Scholar
Flint, M. L. and van den Bosch, R. (1981) Introduction to Integrated Pest Management. Plenum Press, New York. 240 pp.Google Scholar
Gebre Amlak, A., Sigvald, R. and Peterson, J. (1989) The relationship between sowing date, infestation and damage by the maize stalk borer, Busseola fusca (Noctuidae), on maize in Awassa, Ethiopia. Trop. Pest Manage. 35, 143–145.Google Scholar
Geyer, M. W., Sequeira, R. A., Paradice, D. B., Fowler, G.C, Miller, C. and Staten, R. T. (1994) Cotton pest management: A knowledge-based system to handle information input overload. AI Applic. 8, 1–20.Google Scholar
Gindin, G., Barash, I., Raccah, B. S., Ben Zeev, L. S., Klein, M., Jenser, C. R. and Adam, L. (1996) The potential of some entomopathogenic fungi as biocontrol agents against the onion thrips, Thrips tabaci and the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis. Folia Entomol. Hungariaa 62, 37–42.Google Scholar
Gong, Y. Y., Cardwell, K., Hounsa, A., Egal, S., Turner, P. C., Hall, A. J. and Wild, C. P. (2002) Cross-sectional study of dietary aflatoxin exposure and impaired growth in young children from Benin and Togo, West Africa. British Med. J. 325, 20–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodland, R. (1995) The concept of environmental sustainability. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 26, 1–24.Google Scholar
Gottschalk, K. W., Thomas, S. J., Twardus, D. B., Ghent, J. H., Colbert, J. J. and Teske, M. E. (1996) GypsES: A decision support system for gypsy moth management. FRDA Rep. 260, 1–8.Google Scholar
Gutierrez, A. P. (1996) Applied Population Ecology. A Supply-demand Approach. John Wiley, New York. 300 pp.Google Scholar
Gutierrez, A. P., Wermelinger, B., Schulthess, F., Baumgärtner, J., Yaninek, J. S., Herren, H. R., Neuenschwander, P., Löhr, B., Hammond, W. N. O. and Ellis, C.K. (1988) An overview of a systems model of cassava and cassava pests in Africa. Insect Sci. Applic. 8, 919–924.Google Scholar
Guzman, N. S. P., Salazar, R. P., Troche, Z. and De la Cruz, J. (1996) Life cycle, habits and behaviour of Thrips tabaci Linderman in onions (Allium cepa). Revista de Entomol. 22, 93–98.Google Scholar
Haley, S., Currans, K. G. and Croft, B. A. (1990) A computer aid for decision-making in apple pest management. Acta Horticult. 276, 27–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, S. I., Omumbo, J. A., Craig, M. H. and Snow, R. W. (2000) Earth observation, geographic information systems and Plasmodium falciparum malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, pp. 174–215. In Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems in Epidemiology. (Edited by Hay, S. I., Randolph, S. E. and Rogers, D. J.). Advances in Parasitology 47. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Hell, K., Cardwell, K. F., Sétamou, M. and Schulthess, F. (2000) Influence of insect infestation on aflatoxin contamination of stored maize in four agroecological regions in Benin. African Entomol. 8, 169–177.Google Scholar
Herren, H. R. and Neuenschwander, P. (1991) Biological control of cassava pests in Africa. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 36, 257–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoist, N., Meikle, W. G. and Markham, R. H. (2000) Grain injury models for Prostephanus truncatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Sithophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in rural maize stores in West Africa. J.Econ. Entomol. 93, 1338–1346.Google Scholar
Huber, B., Nyrop, J. P., Wolf, W., Reissig, H., Agnello, A. and Kovach, J. (1990) Development of a knowledge-based system supporting IPM decision making in apples. Comp. Electron. Agric. 4, 315–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huffaker, C. B. and Gutierrez, A. P. (1999) Ecological Entomology. 2nd edition, Wiley, New York. 756 pp.Google Scholar
Kettle, D. S. (1990) Medical and Veterinary Entomology. CAB International, Wallingford. 658 pp.Google Scholar
Khan, Z. R., Ampong-Nyarko, K., Chiliswa, P., Hassanali, A., Kimani, S., Lwande, W., Overholt, W., Pickett, J. A., Smart, L. E., Wadhams, L. C. and Woodcock, C. (1997a) Intercropping increases parasitism. Nature 388, 631–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, Z. R., Chiliswa, P., Ampong-Nyarko, K., Smart, L. E., Polaszek, A., Wandera, J. and Mula, M.A. (1997b) Utilisation of wild gramineous plants for management of cereal stemborers in Africa. Insect Sci. Applic. 17, 143–150.Google Scholar
Knutson, L., Sailer, R. I., Murphy, W. L., Carlson, R. W and Dogger, J. R. (1990) Computerized database on immigrant arthropods. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 83, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kogan, M. (1998) Integrated pest management: Historical perspectives and contemporary development. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 43, 243–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kogan, M., Croft, B. A. and Sutherst, R. F. (1999) Applications of ecology for integrated pest management, pp. 681–736. In Ecological Entomology 2nd edition (Edited by Huffaker, C.B. and Gutierrez, A.P.). Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Lewis, W. J., van Lenteren, J. C., Pathak, S. C. and Tumlinson III, J. H. (1998) A total system approach to sustainable pest management. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences 94, 12243–12248.Google Scholar
Mann, B. P. and Wratten, S. D. (1992) A computer-based advisory system for control of the summer pests of winter oilseed rape in Britain. Crop Prot. 11, 561–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mukhebi, A. W. (1992) Economic impact of theileriosis and its control in Africa, pp. 379–403. In The Epidemiology of Theilerosis in Africa (Edited by Norval, R. A. I., Perry, B. D. and Young, A. S.). Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Munkvold, G. P., Hellmich, R. L. and Showers, W. B. (1997) Reduced Fusarium ear rot and symptomless infection in kernels of maize genetically engineered for European corn borer resistance. Phytopathology 87, 1071–1077.Google Scholar
Mwambi, H.G., Baumgärtner, J. and Hadeler, K. P. (2000a) Ticks and tick-borne diseases: A vector-host interaction model for the brown ear tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus). Stat. Meth. Med. Res. 9, 279–301.Google Scholar
Mwambi, H. G., Baumgärtner, J. and Hadeler, K. P. (2000b) Development of a stage-structured analytical population model for strategic decision making: The case of ticks and tick-borne diseases. Rivista Matematica della Università di Parma 3, 157–169.Google Scholar
NARC [National Research Council] (1996) Lost Crops of Africa. Vol. I Grains. Board on Science and Technology for International Development. National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington.Google Scholar
Odulaja, A. and Abu-Zinid, I. M. (1997) The relative efficiencies of Latin square and randomized complete block designs for insect trapping experiments: An investigation using field data on tsetse flies. Ecol. Entomol. 22, 184–188.Google Scholar
Otieno, L. H. and Saini, R. K. (Eds) (1990) Tsetse Population and Behaviour. Proceedings of the International Study Workshop on Tsetse Population and Behaviour, 6–10 August 1989. Insect Sci. Applic. Special Issue 11, 257–461.Google Scholar
Overholt, W. A., Ngi-Song, A. J., Kimani, S., Mbapila, J., Lammers, P. S. and Kioko, E. (1994) Ecological considerations of the introduction of Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Bracondiae) for biological control of Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), in Africa. Biocontr. News Info. 15, 19N–24N.Google Scholar
Overholt, W. A., Ngi-Song, A. J., Omwega, C. O., Kimani-Njogu, S. W., Mbapila, J., Sallam, M. N. and Ofomata, V. (1997) A review of the introduction and establishment of Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in East Africa for biological control of cereal stemborers. Insect Sci. Applic. 17, 79–88.Google Scholar
Randolph, S.E. (2000) Ticks and tick-borne disease systems in space and from space, pp. 217–243. In Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems in Epidemiology (Edited by Hay, S. I., Randolph, S. E. and Rogers, D. J.). Advances in Parasitology 47. Academic Press, London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Randolph, S. E. and Rogers, D. J. (1995) Towards new population models as tools for the control of African ticks and tick-borne diseases, pp. 2–35. In Proc. Conf. Tick-borne Pathogens at the Host-Vector Interface: A Global Perspective (Edited by Coons, L. and Rothschild, M.).Google Scholar
Rhykerd, L. M., Rhykerd, R. L., Engel, B. A., Wilson, M. C. and Rhykerd, C. L. (1993) A knowledgepro decision support system for detecting and managing the major insect pests of Medicago sativa L. Proceedings/American Forage and Grassland Council 2, 34–37.Google Scholar
Rogers, D. J. (2000) Satellites, space, time and the African trypanosomiases, pp. 129–171. In Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems in Epidemiology (Edited by Hay, S. I., Randolph, S. E. and Rogers, D. J.). Advances in Parasitology 47. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Roux, O. and Baumgärtner, J. (1998) Evaluation of mortality factors and risk analysis for the design of an integrated pest management system. Ecological Modelling 109, 61–75.Google Scholar
Roux, O., von Arx, R. and Baumgärtner, J. (1992) Estimating potato tuberworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) damage in stored potatoes in Tunisia.. J. Econ. Entomol. 85, 2246–2250.Google Scholar
Saini, R. K. (Ed.) (1998) Tropical Entomology. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Tropical Entomology, Nairobi, Kenya. ICIPE Science Press, Nairobi, Kenya. 409 pp.Google Scholar
Saini, R. K. (1999) Fighting Africa's deadly fly—new ecofriendly solutions for tsetse management. Accomplishments of the European Union-funded project on interactive development and application of sustainable tsetse management technologies for agropastoral communities in Africa. ICIPE Science Press, Nairobi. 11pp.Google Scholar
Schulthess, F., Bosque-Pérez, N.A., Chabi-Olaye, A., Gounou, S., Ndemah, R. and Goergen, G. (1997) Exchanging natural enemies species of lepidopterous cereal stemborers between African regions. Insect Sci. Applic. 17, 97–108.Google Scholar
Schulthess, F., Cardwell, K. F. and Gounou, S. (2002) The effect of endophytic Fusarium verticillioides on infestation of two maize varieties by lepidopterous stemborers and coleopteran grain feeders. Phytopathol. 92, 120–128.Google Scholar
Sétamou, M., Cardwell, K. F., Schulthess, F. and Hell, K. (1998) Effect of insect damage to maize ears, with special reference to Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidoptera; Pyralidae), on Aspergillus flavus (Deuteromycetes; Monoliales) infection and alfatoxin production in maize before harvest in the Republic of Benin. J. Econ. Entomol. 91, 433–438.Google Scholar
Shore, T. L., Riel, W. G. and Safranyik, L. (1996) A decision support system for the mountain pine beetle in lodgepole pine stands. FRDA Rep. 260, 25–30.Google Scholar
SP-IPM (2000) System-wide Program on Integrated Pest Management. Progress Report 1998–2000. The SP-IPM Coordinator, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA, Ibadan.Google Scholar
Spradling, S. L., Olson, J. K., Coulson, R. N. and Lovelady, C. N. (1998) A geographic information system approach to evaluating the effects of the endangered species protection program on mosquito control. J. American Mosq. Contr. Assoc. 14, 137–147.Google Scholar
Stone, N. D. and Schaub, L. P. (1990) A hybrid expert system/simulation model for the analysis of pest management strategies. AI Applic. Nat. Resour. Manage. 4, 17–26.Google Scholar
Sutherst, R. W., Floyd, R. B., Maywald, G.F and Yeomans, A. F. (1995) Modelling for management of ticks, pp. 36–42. In Proceedings of a Conference on Tick-borne Pathogens at the Host-Vector Interface: A Global Perspective (Edited by Coons, L. and Rothschild, M.).Google Scholar
Tamò, M. and Baumgärtner, J. (1993) Analysis of the cowpea agro-ecosystem in West Africa. I. A demographic model for carbon acquisition and allocation in cowpea Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Ecological Modelling 65, 95–121.Google Scholar
Tamò, M., Baumgärtner, J. and Gutierrez, A. P. (1993) Analysis of the cowpea agro-ecosystem in West Africa. II. Modelling the interactions between cowpea and the bean flower thrips Megalurothrips sjostedti (Trybom) (Thysanoptera, Thripidae). Ecological Modelling 70, 89–113.Google Scholar
Thorpe, K. W, Ridgeway, R. L. and Webb, R. E. (1992) A computerized data management and decision support system for gypsy moth management in suburban parks. Comp. Electr. Agric. 6, 333–345.Google Scholar
Twery, M. J., Elmes, G. A., Schaub, L. P., Foster, M. A. and Saunders, M.C. (1993) GypsES: A decision support system for gypsy moth management. General Technical Report NE-USDA, Forest Service, North-eastern Forestry Experimental Station. 175, 56–64.Google Scholar
Udoh, J. M., Ikotun, T. and Cardwell, K. F. (2000) Storage structures and aflatoxin content of maize in five agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. J. Stored Prod. Res. 36, 187–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Von Arx, R., Roux, O. and Baumgärtner, J. (1990) Tuber infestation by potato tubermoth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) at potato harvest in relation to farmers's practices. Agric, Ecosyst. Environ. 31, 277–292.Google Scholar
Weisz, R., Saunders, M., Smilowitz, Z., Huang, H. and Christ, B. (1994) Knowledge-based reasoning in integrated resistance management: The Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 87, 1384–1399.Google Scholar
WHO [World Health Organization] (1995) Vector control for malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. Report of a WHO Study Group. WHO Technical Report Series 857. World Health Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Windels, C. E., Windels, M. B. and Kommedahl, T. (1975) Association of Fusarium species with picnic beetles on corn ears. Phytopathology 66, 328–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WRI [World Resources Institute] (1998) World Resources 1998–99. A Guide to the Global Environment: Environmental Change and Human Health. A joint publication by the World Resources Institute, the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 384 pp.Google Scholar
Xia, Y. (1998) PESTNET at ICIPE and Insect Informatics, pp. 133–137. Workshop Proceedings of the Integrated Pest Management Communications and Information Workshop for Eastern and Southern Africa (ICWESA), Nairobi, Kenya, 1–6 March 1998.Google Scholar
Xia, Y. and Baumgärtner, J. (1999a) Web-based intelligent insect management information system. 2nd MODSS '99 (Multi-Objective Decision Support System), Brisbane, Australia, 1–6 August 1999. http://informatics.icipe.orgmodds99_full_paper.docGoogle Scholar
Xia, Y. and Baumgärtner, J.(1999b), ICIPE Insect Informatics Initiative: An Integrated Approach for Insect Information Generation, Processing and Dissemination, pp. 31–39. In Role and Potential of IT Systems and Communication Networks for International Development (Edited by Loeper et al., A.). Universität Bonn-ILB, Germany.Google Scholar
Yudelman, M., Ratta, M. A. and Nygaard, N. (1998) Pest management and food production. Looking to the future. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 25. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington.Google Scholar
Zhetner, O. (1995) Practice of integrated pest management in tropical and sub-tropical Africa: An overview of two decades (1970–1990), pp. 1–67. In Integrated Pest Management in the Tropics: Current Status and Future Prospects (Edited by Mengech, A. N., Saxena, K. N. and Gopalan, H. N. B.). Wiley, New York.Google Scholar