Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T13:45:28.646Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Attitudes and Action in International Refugee Policy: Evidence from Australia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2022

Jill Sheppard Open the ORCID record for Jill Sheppard [Opens in a new window]  and
Jana von Stein Open the ORCID record for Jana von Stein [Opens in a new window]
Jill Sheppard
Affiliation:
School of Politics and International Relations, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
Jana von Stein*
Affiliation:
School of Politics and International Relations, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
*
*Corresponding author. Email: jana.vonstein@anu.edu.au
Get access

Abstract

Do citizens care whether their government breaches international law, or are other imperatives more influential? We consider this question in the human rights arena, asking whether and how it matters how abuses are framed. In a novel survey experiment, we ask Australians about their attitudes toward restrictive immigration policy, holding the underlying breaches constant but varying how they are framed. We find that people most strongly oppose policy that violates international law. Emphasizing moral considerations has smaller but still notable impacts on attitudes, whereas reputational frames have the weakest effects. We also find that translating attitudes into political action is challenging: most who learn of current policy's legal, moral, or reputational dimensions and in turn become more critical do not subsequently express greater interest in trying to do something about it. Nonetheless, there are interesting differences across frames. Appealing to international law or moral considerations is more effective at spurring mobilization than emphasizing reputational harm, though via different mechanisms. Framing this debate in international reputational terms consistently has the weakest impacts on interest in political action, and may be worse than saying nothing at all.

Keywords

Framing effectshuman rightsinternational lawrefugee policysurvey experiment
Type
Research Note
Information
International Organization , Volume 76 , Issue 4 , Fall 2022 , pp. 929 - 956
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The IO Foundation

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abbott, Kenneth, Moravcsik, Andrew, Slaughter, Anne-Marie, and Snidal, Duncan. 2000. The Concept of Legalization. International Organization 54 (3):401–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adida, Claire, Lo, Adeline, and Platas, Melina. 2018. Perspective Taking Can Promote Short-Term Inclusionary Behavior Toward Syrian Refugees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Available at <https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1804002115>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albertson, Bethany, and Busby, Joshua. 2015. Hearts or Minds? Identifying Persuasive Messages on Climate Change. Research and Politics (1):1–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Allard, Tom, and Whyte, Sarah. 2015. Refugee Policies Give Australia's Global Reputation a Beating. Sydney Morning Herald, 19 June.Google Scholar
International, Amnesty. 2015. By Hook or by Crook: Australia's Abuse of Asylum-Seekers at Sea. 28 October. Available at <https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/ASA1225762015ENGLISH.PDF>..' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=International,+Amnesty.+2015.+By+Hook+or+by+Crook:+Australia's+Abuse+of+Asylum-Seekers+at+Sea.+28+October.+Available+at+.>Google Scholar
International, Amnesty. 2021. Canada: Abuse, Discrimination in Immigration Detention. 17 June. Available at <https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2021/06/canada-abuse-discrimination-immigration-detention/>..>Google Scholar
Archard, David, and Mcleod, Colin, eds. 2002. The Moral and Political Status of Children. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Athey, Susan, and Imbens, Guido, 2017. The Econometrics of Randomized Experiments. In Handbook of Field Experiments, edited by Banerjee, Abhijit Vinayak and Duflo, Esther, chapter 3. Elsevier.Google Scholar
Ausderan, Jacob. 2014. How Naming and Shaming Affects Human Rights Perceptions in the Shamed Country. Journal of Peace Research 51 (1):81–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Australian Election Study. Various years. Available at <https://australianelectionstudy.org>..>Google Scholar
Australian Human Rights Commission. 2014. The Forgotten Children: National Inquiry into Children in Immigration Detention. Available at <https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/asylum-seekers-and-refugees/publications/forgotten-children-national-inquiry-children>..>Google Scholar
Avdagic, Sabina, and Savage, Lee. 2021. Negativity Bias: The Impact of Framing of Immigration on Welfare State Support in Germany, Sweden and the UK. British Journal of Political Science 51 (2):624–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bansak, Kirk, Hainmueller, Jens, and Hangartner, Dominik. 2016. How Economic, Humanitarian, and Religious Concerns Shape European Attitudes Toward Asylum Seekers. Science 354 (6309).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, Reuben, and Kenny, David. 1986. The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51:1173–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bechtel, Michael, Hainmueller, Jens, Hangartner, Dominik, and Helbling, Marc. 2015. Reality Bites: The Limits of Framing Effects for Salient and Contested Policy Issues. Political Science Research and Methods 3 (3):683–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benford, Robert, and Snow, David. 2000. Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overiew and Assessment. Annual Review of Sociology 26:611–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betts, Alexander. 2015. The Normative Terrain of the Global Refugee Regime. Ethics and International Affairs 29 (4):363–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brutger, Ryan, and Kertzer, Joshua. 2018. A Dispositional Theory of Reputation Costs. International Organization 72 (3):693–724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Busby, Joshua. 2010. Moral Movements and Foreign Policy. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Button, Katherine S., Ioannidis, John P.A., Mokrysz, Claire, Nosek, Brian A., Flint, Jonathan, Robinson, Emma S.J., and Munafò, Marcus R.. 2013. Power Failure: Why Small Sample Size Undermines the Reliability of Neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 14:365–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carens, Joseph. 1992. Refugees and the Limits of Obligation. Public Affairs Quarterly 6 (1):31–44.Google Scholar
Carpenter, R. Charli, and Montgomery, Alexander. 2020. The Stopping Power of Norms: Saturation Bombing, Civilian Immunity, and US Attitudes Toward the Norms and Laws of War. International Security 45 (2):140–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carson, Andrea, Dufresne, Yannick, and Martin, Aaron. 2016. Wedge Politics: Mapping Voter Attitudes to Asylum Seekers Using Large-Scale Data During the Australian 2013 Federal Election Campaign. Policy and Internet 8 (4):478–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, Terrence, and Chaudoin, Stephen. 2020. Public Reactions to International Legal Institutions: The ICC in a Developing Democracy. Journal of Politics 82 (4). Available at <https://doi.org/10.1086/708338>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaudoin, Stephen. 2014. Promises or Policies? An Experimental Analysis of International Agreements and Audience Reactions. International Organization 68 (1):235–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Checkel, Jeffrey. 1999. Norms, Institutions, and National Identity in Contemporary Europe. International Studies Quarterly 43 (1):83–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chilton, Adam. 2014. The Influence of International Human Rights Agreements on Public Opinion: An Experimental Study. Chicago Journal of International Law 15:110.Google Scholar
Chilton, Adam. 2015. The Laws of War and Public Opinion: An Experimental Study. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 171 (1):181–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chilton, Adam, and Versteeg, Mila. 2016. International Law, Constitutional Law, and Public Support for Torture. Research and Politics 3 (1):1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chong, Dennis, and Druckman, James. 2007. Framing Theory. Annual Review of Political Science 10:103–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cope, Kevin, and Crabtree, Charles. 2020. Nationalist Backlash to International Refugee Law: Evidence from a Survey Experiment in Turkey. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies. Available at <https://doi.org/10.1111/jels.12269>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cope, Kevin, and Crabtree, Charles. 2022. Migrant-Family Separation and the Diverging Normative Force of International Law and Constitutional Law. Journal of Legal Studies. Available at <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3774739>.Google Scholar
Conrad, Courtenay, and Ritter, Emily Hencken. 2019. Contentious Compliance. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corbett, Elizabeth, Gunasekera, Hasantha, Maycock, Alanna, and Isaacs, David. 2014. Australia's Treatment of Refugee and Asylum Seeker Children: The Views of Australian Paediatricians. Medical Journal of Australia 201 (7):393–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, Lisa. 2015. Australians “Sick of Being Lectured to” by United Nations, after Report Finds Anti-torture Breach. Sydney Morning Herald, 10 March.Google Scholar
Croco, Sarah. 2011. The Decider's Dilemma: Leader Culpability, War Outcomes, and Domestic Punishment. American Political Science Review 105 (3):457–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dai, Xinyuan. 2013. The Compliance Gap and the Efficacy of International Human Rights Institutions. In The Persistent Power of Human Rights, edited by Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen, and Sikkink, Kathryn, 85–102. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dechent, Susanna, Tania, Sharmin, and Mapulanga-Hulston, Jackie. 2019. Asylum Seeker Children in Nauru: Australia's Human Rights Obligations and Operational Realities. International Journal of Refugee Law 31 (1):83–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dehm, Sara, and Walden, Max. 2018. Refugee Policy: A Cruel Bipartisanship. In Double Disillusion: The 2016 Australian Federal Election, edited by Gauja, Anika, Peter Chen, Jennifer Curtin, and Juliet Pietsch ANU Press.Google Scholar
Doctors without Borders. 2018. Indefinite Despair: The Tragic Mental Health Consequences of Offshore Processing on Nauru. Available at <https://www.msf.org.au/sites/default/files/attachments/indefinite_despair_4.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Dowding, Keith, and Martin, Aaron. 2017. Policy Agendas in Australia. Palgrave McMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druckman, James. 2001. The Implications of Framing Effects for Citizen Competence. Political Behavior 23 (3):225–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eilstrup-Sangiovanni, Mette, and Bondaroff, Teale. 2014. From Advocacy to Confrontation: Direct Enforcement by Environmental NGOs. International Studies Quarterly 58 (2):348–61.Google Scholar
Entman, Robert. 1993. Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm. Journal of Communication 43 (4):51–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrell, Paul, Evershed, Nick, and Davidson, Helen. 2016. The Nauru Files: Cache of 2,000 Leaked Reports Reveal Scale of Abuse of Children in Australian Offshore Detention. The Guardian, 10 August.Google Scholar
Finnemore, Martha, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. International Norms Dynamics and Political Change. International Organization 52 (4):887–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gamson, William, and Modigliani, Andre. 1989. Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach. American Journal of Sociology 95 (1):1–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodwin-Gill, Guy. 2001. Article 31 of the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees: Non-penalization, Detention and Protection. Available at <https://www.unhcr.org/3bcfdf164.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie. 2008. Sticks and Stones: Naming and Shaming the Human Rights Enforcement Problem. International Organization 62 (4):689–716.Google Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie, LeVeck, Brad, and Victor, David. 2015. How Activists Perceive the Utility of International Law. Journal of Politics 78 (1):167–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hangartner, Dominik, Dinas, Elias, Marbach, Moritz, Matakos, Konstantinos, and Xefteris, Dimitrios. 2019. Does Exposure to the Refugee Crisis Make Natives More Hostile? American Political Science Review 113 (2):442–55.Google Scholar
Watch, Human Rights. 2017. Australia/PNG: Refugees Face Unchecked Violence. 25 October. Available at <https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/25/australia/png-refugees-face-unchecked-violence>..>Google Scholar
Watch, Human Rights. 2019. Victories for Human Rights Highlight Australia's Tarnished Reputation. 17 February. Available at <https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/17/victories-human-rights-highlight-australias-tarnished-reputation>..' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Watch,+Human+Rights.+2019.+Victories+for+Human+Rights+Highlight+Australia's+Tarnished+Reputation.+17+February.+Available+at+.>Google Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, Tingley, Dustin, Keele, Kuke, and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2011. Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning About Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies. American Political Science Review 105 (4):765–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaacs, David. 2016. Are Healthcare Professionals Working in Australia's Immigration Detention Centres Condoning Torture? Journal of Medical Ethics 42 (7):413–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joseph, Sarah. 2015. On the Ground at Australia's Universal Periodic Review. The Conversation, 12 November.Google Scholar
Keck, Margaret, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kertzer, Joshua, Powers, Kathleen, Rathbun, Brian, and Iyer, Ravi. 2014. Moral Support: How Moral Values Shape Foreign Policy Attitudes. Journal of Politics 76 (3):825–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klandermans, Bert. 1984. Mobilization and Participation: Social-Psychological Expansions of Resource Mobilization Theory. American Sociological Review 49 (5):583–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleres, Jochen, and Wettergren, Åsa. 2017. Fear, Hope, Anger, and Guilt in Climate Activism. Social Movement Studies 16 (5):507–519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klotz, Audie. 1995. Norms in International Relations: The Struggle Against Apartheid. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kreps, Sarah, and Maxey, Sarah. 2018. Mechanisms of Morality: Sources of Support for Humanitarian Intervention. Journal of Conflict Resolution 62 (8):1814–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreps, Sarah, and Wallace, Geoffrey. 2016. International Law, Military Effectiveness, and Support for US Drone Strikes. Journal of Peace Research 53 (6):830–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Institute, Lowy. 2016. Asylum Seekers. Available at <https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/charts/asylum-seekers>..>Google Scholar
Institute, Lowy. 2017. Nauru and Manus Island Policy. Available at <https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/charts/nauru-and-manus-island-policy>..>Google Scholar
Lupu, Yonaton. 2013. Best Evidence: The Role of Information in Domestic Judicial Enforcement of International Human Rights Agreements. International Organization 67 (4):469–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupu, Yonaton, and Wallace, Geoffrey. 2019. Violence, Non-violence, and the Effects of International Human Rights Law. American Journal of Political Science 63 (2):652–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maguire, Amy. 2016. Why Does International Condemnation on Human Rights Mean So Little to Australia? The Conversation, 3 February.Google Scholar
Manne, Robert. 2018. This Pains Me, but It's Time to Compromise on Australia's Cruel Asylum Seeker Policy. The Guardian, 22 September.Google Scholar
Manning, Stephan, and Reinecke, Juliane. 2016. We're Failing to Solve the World's Wicked Problems. Here's a Better Approach. The Conversation, 2 October.Google Scholar
McAdam, Jane. 2013. Australia and Asylum Seekers. International Journal of Refugee Law 25 (3):435–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAdam, Jane, and Chong, Fiona. 2014. Refugees: Why Seeking Asylum Is Legal and Australia's Policies Are Not. UNSW Press.Google Scholar
McAllister, Ian. 2003. Border Protection, the 2001 Australian Election and the Coalition Victory. Australian Journal of Political Science 38 (3):445–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEntire, Kyla Jo, Leiby, Michelle, and Krain, Matthew. 2015. Human Rights Organizations as Agents of Change: An Experimental Examination of Framing and Micromobilization. American Political Science Review 109 (3):407–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKay, Fiona, Thomas, Samantha, and Blood, Warwick. 2011. “Any One of These Boat People Could Be a Terrorist for All We Know!” Media Representations and Public Perceptions of “Boat People” in Australia. Journalism 12 (5):607–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Millar, Lisa. 2015. Australia's Asylum Seeker Policies Heavily Criticised at UN Human Rights Council Review. ABC News, 9 November.Google Scholar
Miller, Dale, Effron, Daniel, and Zak, Sonya. 2010. From Moral Outrage to Social Protest. In The Psychology of Justice and Legitimacy, edited by Bobocel, Ramona, Kay, Aaron, Zanna, Mark, and Olson, James, 103–23. Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Murdie, Amanda, and Davis, David. 2012. Shaming and Blaming: Using Events Data to Assess the Impact of Human Rights INGOs. International Studies Quarterly 56 (1):1–16.Google Scholar
Mutz, Diana, Pemantle, Robin, and Pham, Philip. 2019. The Perils of Balance Testing in Experimental Design: Messy Analyses of Clean Data. American Statistician 73 (1):32–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, Rodger. 2001. Persuasion, Frames, and Norm Construction. European Journal of International Relations 7 (1):37–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, Janet. 2017a. Australia's Humanitarian Program: A Quick Guide to the Statistics Since 1947. Parliamentary Research Library. Available at <https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp1617/Quick_Guides/HumanitarianProg>..' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Phillips,+Janet.+2017a.+Australia's+Humanitarian+Program:+A+Quick+Guide+to+the+Statistics+Since+1947.+Parliamentary+Research+Library.+Available+at+.>Google Scholar
Phillips, Janet. 2017b. A Comparison of Coalition and Labor Government Asylum Policies in Australia Since 2001. Parliamentary Research Library. Available at <https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp1617/AsylumPolicies>..>Google Scholar
Putnam, Tonya, and Shapiro, Jacob. 2017. International Law and Voter Preferences: the Case of Foreign Human Rights Violations. Human Rights Review 18:243–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rathbun, Brian, Kertzer, Joshua, Reifler, Jason, Goren, Paul, and Scotto, Thomas. 2016. Taking Foreign Policy Personally: Personal Values and Foreign Policy Attitudes. International Studies Quarterly 60 (1):124–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rescher, Nicholas. 1992. Moral Obligation and the Refugee. Public Affairs Quarterly 6 (1):23–30.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1999. The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 2013. The Persistent Power of Human Rights: From Commitment to Compliance. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schloenhardt, Andreas, and Craig, Colin. 2015. “Turning Back the Boats”: Australia's Interdiction of Irregular Migrants at Sea. International Journal of Refugee Law 27 (4):536–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Severson, Alexander, and Coleman, Eric. 2015. Moral Frames and Climate Change Policy Attributes. Social Science Quarterly 96 (5):1977–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmons, Beth. 2009. Mobilizing for Human Rights. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snow, David, and Benford, Robert. 1988. Ideology, Frame Resonance and Participant Mobilization. International Social Movement Research 1:197–217.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney. 2011. Power in Movement. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tingley, Dustin, and Tomz, Michael. 2014. Conditional Cooperation and Climate Change. Comparative Political Studies 47 (3):344–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tingley, Dustin, and Tomz, Michael. 2019. International Commitments and Domestic Opinion: The Effect of the Paris Agreement on Public Support for Policies to Address Climate Change. Available at <https://tomz.people.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj4711/f/tingleytomz-ep-2019.pdf>.CrossRef.>Google Scholar
Tomz, Michael. 2008. The Effect of International Law on Preferences and Beliefs. Available at <https://tomz.people.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj4711/f/tomz-intllaw-2008-02-11a.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Tomz, Michael, and Weeks, Jessica 2021. Military Alliances and Public Support for War. International Studies Quarterly 65 (3):811–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. 2012. Report of the 2012 Day of General Discussion on the Rights of All Children in the Context of International Migration.Google Scholar
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). 1951, 1967. Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Available at <https://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10>..>Google Scholar
UNHCR. 2013a. UNHCR Monitoring Visit to the Republic of Nauru, 7 to 9 October 2013.Google Scholar
UNHCR. 2013b. UNHCR Monitoring Visit to Manus Island, Papua New Guinea, 23 to 25 October 2013.Google Scholar
UNHCR. 2018. UN Experts to US: “Release Migrant Children from Detention and Stop Using Them to Deter Irregular Migration.” Available at <https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23245&LangID=E>..>Google Scholar
UNHCR. 2020. Global Report. Available at <https://www.unhcr.org/flagship-reports/globalreport>..>Google Scholar
UNHCR. 2021. The Nationality and Borders Bill. Available at <https://www.unhcr.org/uk/uk-immigration-and-asylum-plans-some-questions-answered-by-unhcr.html>..>Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Committee. 2002. Report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Visit to Australia. Available at <https://www.refworld.org/docid/3e2e7ca54.html.Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Committee. 2016. Views Adopted by the Committee Under Article 5 (4) of the Optional Protocol, Concerning Communication 2233/2013.Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2015a. Compilation Prepared by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2015b. Report of the Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Juan Méndez.Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2017. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants in His Mission to Australia and the Regional Processing Centres in Nauru. Available at <https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/report-special-rapporteur-human-rights-migrants-his-mission-australia>..>Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2018. Opinions Adopted by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention at its 81st Session. Available at <https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Detention/Pages/Opinions81stSession.aspx>..>Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2021. Report on Means to Address the Human Rights Impact of Pushbacks of Migrants on Land and at Sea. Available at <https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G21/106/33/PDF/G2110633.pdf?OpenElement>..>Google Scholar
van der Veen, A. Maurits. 2011. Ideas, Interests, and Foreign Aid. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Sant, Shannon. 2018. Lawsuits Say Australia Subjects Asylum Seekers to Torture and Crimes Against Humanity. National Public Radio, 10 December.Google Scholar
von Stein, Jana. 2016. Making Promises, Keeping Promises: Democracy, Ratification, and Compliance in International Human Rights Law. British Journal of Political Science 46 (3):655–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, Geoffrey. 2013. International Law and Public Attitudes Toward Torture: An Experimental Study. International Organization 67 (1):105–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, Geoffrey. 2014. Martial Law? Military Experience, International Law, and Support for Torture. International Studies Quarterly 58 (3):501–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walzer, Michael. 1983. Spheres of Justice. Basic Books.Google Scholar
America, Welcoming. 2018. Messages that Matter. Available at <https://www.welcomingrefugees.org/resources/messages-matter>; accessed 9 March, 2021.;+accessed+9+March,+2021.>Google Scholar
Zhao, Xinshu, Lynch, John, and Chen, Qimei. 2010. Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths About Mediation Analysis. Journal of Consumer Research 37 (2):197–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Sheppard and von Stein supplementary material

Appendix
Download Sheppard and von Stein supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 886.9 KB
Supplementary material: Link

Sheppard and von Stein Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/D012BP
Link