Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T07:53:51.618Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 May 2020

Rochelle L. Frounfelker ,
Nargis Islam ,
Joseph Falcone ,
Jordan Farrar ,
Chekufa Ra ,
Cara M. Antonaccio ,
Ngozi Enelamah  and
Theresa S. Betancourt
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Children in armed conflict are frequently deprived of basic needs, psychologically supportive environments, educational and vocational opportunities, and other resources that promote positive psychosocial development and mental health. This article describes the mental health challenges faced by conflict-affected children and youth, the interventions designed to prevent or ameliorate the psychosocial impact of conflict-related experiences, and a case example of the challenges and opportunities related to addressing the mental health needs of Rohingya children and youth.

Keywords

children and youtharmed conflictmental healthpsychosocialepidemiologyinterventionschild soldiersrefugeesRohingyaCox's Bazarsocial determinants of health
Type
The impact of armed conflict and other situations of violence on children
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 101 , Issue 911: Children and war , August 2019 , pp. 481 - 506
Copyright
Copyright © icrc 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Machel, Graça, Impact of Armed Conflict on Children: Report of the Expert of the Secretary-General, Submitted Pursuant to UN General Assembly Resolution 48/157, UN, New York, 1996Google Scholar.

2 War Child UK, War: The Next Generation – The Future of War and Its Impact on Children, 2013.

3 Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict (SRSG CAAC), 20 Years to Better Protect Children Affected by Conflict, United Nations, New York, 2016.

4 Wolf, Molly R., Prabhu, Shraddha and Carello, Janice, “Children's Experiences of Trauma and Human Rights Violations around the World”, in Butler, Lisa D., Critelli, Filomena M. and Carella, Janice (eds), Trauma and Human Rights: Integrating Approaches to Address Human Suffering, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019Google Scholar.

5 Slone, Michelle and Man, Shiri, “Effects of War, Terrorism, and Armed Conflict on Young Children: A Systematic Review”, Child Psychiatry and Human Development, Vol. 47, No 6, 2016CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Attanayake, Vindya, McKay, Rachel, Joffres, Michel, Singh, Sonal, Burkle, Frederick Jr. and Mills, Edward, “Prevalence of Mental Disorders among Children Exposed to War: A Systematic Review of 7,920 Children”, Medicine, Conflict and Survival, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

6 Fiona Charlson, Mark van Ommeren, Abraham Flaxman, Joseph Cornett, Harvey Whiteford and Shekhar Saxena, “New WHO Prevalence Estimates of Mental Disorders in Conflict Settings: A Systematic Review”, The Lancet, Vol. 394, No. 10194, 2019.

7 Daphna Canetti, Shaul Kimhi, Rasmiyah Hanoun, Gabriel Rocha, Sandro Galea and Charles Morgan, “How Personality Affects Vulnerability among Israelis and Palestinians following the 2009 Gaza Conflict”, PLoS One, Vol. 11, No. 7, 2016; Abdelaziz Thabet, Sanaa Thabet and Panos Vostanis, “The Relationship between War Trauma, PTSD, Depression, and Anxiety among Palestinian Children in the Gaza Strip”, Health Science Journal, Vol. 10, No. 5, 2016.

8 John D. Perkins, Maiss Ajeeb, Lina Fadel and Ghassan Saleh, “Mental Health in Syrian Children with a Focus on Post-Traumatic Stress: A Cross-Sectional Study from Syrian Schools”, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, Vol. 53, No. 11, 2018.

9 Eva Heim, Iris Wegmann and Andreas Maercker, “Cultural Values and the Prevalence of Mental Disorders in 25 Countries: A Secondary Data Analysis”, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 189, 2017.

10 Inka Weissbecker, Fahmy Hanna, Mohamed El Shazly, James Gao and Peter Ventevogel, “Integrative Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Interventions for Refugees in Humanitarian Crisis Settings”, in Thomas Wenzel and Boris Drozdek (eds), An Uncertain Safety: Integrative Health Care for the 21st Century Refugees, Springer International, Cham, 2019.

11 Claudia Catani, “Mental Health of Children Living in War Zones: A Risk and Protection Perspective”, World Psychiatry, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2018.

12 Galit Halevi, Amir Djalovski, Adva Vengrober and Ruth Feldman, “Risk and Resilience Trajectories in War-Exposed Children across the First Decade of Life”, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 57, No. 10, 2016.

13 John A. Shaw, “Children Exposed to War/Terrorism”, Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, Vol. 6, No. 4, 2003.

14 Urie Bronfenbrenner, Ecological Systems Theory, Jessica Kingsley, London, 1992; Wietse A. Tol, Corrado Barbui, Ananda Galappatti, Derrick Silove, Theresa S. Betancourt, Renato Souza, Anne Golaz and Mark Van Ommeren, “Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Humanitarian Settings: Linking Practice and Research”, The Lancet, Vol. 378, No. 9802, 2011.

15 Ruth V. Reed, Mina Fazel, Lynne Jones, Catherine Panter-Brick and Alan Stein, “Mental Health of Displaced and Refugee Children Resettled in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries: Risk and Protective Factors”, The Lancet, Vol. 379, No. 9812, 2012; Laila Farhood, Huda Zurayk, Monique Chaya, Fadia Saadeh, Garbis Meshefedjian and Thuraya Sidani, “The Impact of War on the Physical and Mental Health of the Family: The Lebanese Experience”, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 36, No. 12, 1993; Kirsi Peltonen, Samir Qouta, Marwan Diab and Raija-Leena Punamäki, “Resilience among Children in War: The Role of Multilevel Social Factors”, Traumatology, Vol. 20, No. 4, 2014; Thomas Poirier, “The Effects of Armed Conflict on Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa”, International Journal of Educational Development, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2012; Guido Veronese, Marco Castiglioni, Marco Tombolani and Mahmud Said, “‘My Happiness is the Refugee Camp, My Future Palestine’: Optimism, Life Satisfaction and Perceived Happiness in a Group of Palestinian Children”, Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2012.

16 Kenneth E. Miller and Andrew Rasmussen, “War Exposure, Daily Stressors, and Mental Health in Conflict and Post-Conflict Settings: Bridging the Divide between Trauma-Focused and Psychosocial Frameworks”, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 70, No. 1, 2012.

17 Theresa S. Betancourt, Dana L. Thomson, Robert T. Brennan, Cara M. Antonaccio, Stephen E. Gilman and Tyler J. VanderWeele, “Stigma and Acceptance of Sierra Leone's Child Soldiers: A Prospective Longitudinal Study of Adult Mental Health and Social Functioning”, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2019.

18 SRSG CAAC, The Six Grave Violations against Children during Armed Conflict: The Legal Foundation, UN, New York, 2013.

19 Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict, UN Doc. A/67/845, 15 May 2013; Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict, UN Doc. A/72/865, 16 May 2018.

20 Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict, UN Doc. A/67/845, 15 May 2013; Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict, UN Doc. A/72/865, 16 May 2018.

21 Child Soldiers Initiative, “Reports of Children Used in Hostilities”, available at: https://childsoldiersworldindex.org/hostilities (all internet references were accessed in April 2020).

22 Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict, UN Doc. A/73/907, 20 June 2019.

23 Brandon A. Kohrt, Mark J. D. Jordans, Wietse A. Tol, Rebecca A. Speckman, Sujen M. Maharjan, Carol M. Worthman and Ivan H. Komproe, “Comparison of Mental Health between Former Child Soldiers and Children Never Conscripted by Armed Groups in Nepal”, Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 300, No. 6, 2008.

24 Ilse Derluyn, Eric Broekaert, Gilberte Schuyten and Els De Temmerman, “Post-Traumatic Stress in Former Ugandan Child Soldiers”, The Lancet, Vol. 363, No. 9412, 2004.

25 Neil Boothby, “What Happens when Child Soldiers Grow Up? The Mozambique Case Study”, Intervention, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2006.

26 Christopher Blattmann and Jeannie Annan, “The Consequences of Child Soldiering”, The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 92, No. 4, 2010.

27 Theresa S. Betancourt, Robert T. Brennan, Julia Rubin-Smith, Garrett M. Fitzmaurice and Stephen E. Gilman, “Sierra Leone's Former Child Soldiers: A Longitudinal Study of Risk, Protective Factors, and Mental Health”, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 49, No. 6, 2010.

28 Theresa S. Betancourt, Jessica Agnew-Blais, Stephen E. Gilman, David R. Williams and B. Heidi Ellis, “Past Horrors, Present Struggles: The Role of Stigma in the Association between War Experiences and Psychosocial Adjustment among Former Child Soldiers in Sierra Leone”, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 70, No. 1, 2010.

29 Mark J. D. Jordans, Hugo Pigott and Wietse A. Tol, “Interventions for Children Affected by Armed Conflict: A Systematic Review of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Low- and Middle-Income Countries”, Current Psychiatry Reports, Vol. 18, No. 9, 2016.

30 Gloria A. Pedersen, Eva Smallegange, April Coetzee, Kim Hartog, Jasmine Turner, Mark M. D. Jordans and Felicity L. Brown, “A Systematic Review of the Evidence for Family and Parenting Interventions in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Child and Youth Mental Health Outcomes”, Journal of Child and Family Studies, Vol. 28, No. 8, 2019.

31 Lynn A. Karoly, Rebecca Kilburn and Jill S. Cannon, “What Works in Early Childhood Intervention Programs”, in Lynn A. Karoly, Rebecca Kilburn and Jill S. Cannon (eds), Early Childhood Interventions: Proven Results, Future Promise, RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2005.

32 Alexander Miller, Julia Meredith Hess, Deborah Bybee and Jessica R. Goodkind, “Understanding the Mental Health Consequences of Family Separation for Refugees: Implications for Policy and Practice”, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 88, No. 1, 2018.

33 Theresa S. Betancourt, Timothy P. Williams, Sarah E. Kellner, Joy Gebre-Medhin, Katrina Hann and Yvonne Kayiteshonga, “Interrelatedness of Child Health, Protection and Well-being: An Application of the SAFE Model in Rwanda”, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 74, No. 10, 2012.

34 Sally Grantham-McGregor and Joanne A. Smith, “Extending the Jamaican Early Childhood Development Intervention”, Journal of Applied Research on Children, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2016; Kimberly Josephson, Gabriela Guerrero and Catherine Coddington, Supporting the Early Childhood Workforce at Scale: The Cuna Más Home Visiting Program in Peru, Results for Development, 2017.

35 Shelley Peacock, Stephanie Konrad, Erin Watson, Darren Nickel and Nareem Muhajarine, “Effectiveness of Home Visiting Programs on Child Outcomes: A Systematic Review”, BMC Public Health, Vol. 13 No. 1, 2013.

36 Theresa S. Betancourt, Emily Franchett, Catherine M. Kirk, Robert T. Brennan, Laura Rawlings, Briana Wilson, Aisha Yousafzai, Rose Wilder, Sylvere Mukunzi, Josee Mukandanga, Christian Ukundineza, Kalisa Godfrey and Vincent Sezibera, “Integrating Social Protection and Early Childhood Development: Open Trial of a Family Home-Visiting Intervention, Sugira Muryango”, Early Childhood Development and Care, Vol. 190, No. 2, 2018.

37 Janna Metzler, Karin Diaconu, Sabrina Hermoilla, Robert Kaijuka, George Ebulu, Kevin Savage and Alastair Ager, “Short- and Longer-Term Impacts of Child Friendly Space Interventions in Rwamwanja Refugee Settlement, Uganda”, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, Vol. 60, No. 11, 2019.

38 Sinaria Jabbar and Amy Betawi, “Children Express: War and Peace Themes in the Drawings of Iraqi Refugee Children in Jordan”, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, Vol. 24, No.1, 2019.

39 Laura K. Murray, Stephanie Skavenski, Jeremy C. Kane, John Mayeya, Shannon Dorsey, Judy A. Cohen, Lynn T. M. Micalopoulos, Mwiya Imasiku and Paul A. Bolton, “Effectiveness of Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy among Trauma-Affected Children in Lusaka, Zambia: A Randomized Clinical Trial”, JAMA Pediatrics, Vol. 169, No. 8, 2015.

40 Paul O'Callaghan, Lindsay Branham, Ciaran Shannon, Theresa S. Betancourt, Martin Dempster and John McMullen, “A Pilot Study of a Family Focused, Psychosocial Intervention with War-Exposed Youth at Risk of Attack and Abduction in North-Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo”, Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol. 38, No. 7, 2014.

41 Ibid.

42 Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), A Community-Based Approach in UNHCR Operations, Geneva, 2008, available at: www.refworld.org/pdfid/47da54722.pdf

43 Katy Robjant and Mina Fazel, “The Emerging Evidence for Narrative Exposure Therapy: A Review”, Clinical Psychology Review, Vol. 30, No. 8, 2010.

44 Maggie Schauer, Frank Neuner and Thomas Elbert, “Narrative Exposure Therapy for Children and Adolescents (KIDNET)”, in Markus A. Landolt, Marylene Cloitre and Ulrich Schnyder (eds), Evidence-Based Treatments for Trauma Related Disorders in Children and Adolescents, Springer International, Cham, 2017.

45 Verena Ertl, Anett Pfeiffer, Elisabeth Schauer, Thomas Elbert and Frank Neuner, “Community-Implemented Trauma Therapy for Former Child Soldiers in Northern Uganda”, Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 306, No. 5, 2011.

46 Katharin Hermenau, Tobias Hecker, Susanne Schaal, Anna Maedl and Thomas Elbert, “Addressing Post-Traumatic Stress and Aggression by Means of Narrative Exposure: A Randomized Controlled Trial with Ex-Combatants in the Eastern DRC”, Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, Vol. 22, No. 8, 2013.

47 Martina Ruf, Maggie Schauer, Frank Neuner, Claudia Catani, Elisabeth Schauer and Thomas Elbert, “Narrative Exposure Therapy for 7- to 16-Year-Olds: A Randomized Controlled Trial with Traumatized Refugee Children”, Journal of Traumatic Stress, Vol. 23, No. 4, 2010.

48 Lamaro P. Onyut, Frank Neuner, Elisabeth Schauer, Verena Ertl, Michael Odenwald, Maggie Schauer and Thomas Elbert, “Narrative Exposure Therapy as a Treatment for Child War Survivors with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Two Case Reports and a Pilot Study in an African Refugee Settlement”, BMC Psychiatry, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2005.

49 Susanna Schaal, Thomas Elbert and Frank Neuner, “Narrative Exposure Therapy Versus Interpersonal Psychotherapy: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial with Rwandan Genocide Orphans”, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Vol. 78, No. 5, 2009.

50 Judith A. Cohen, Anthony P. Mannarino, Matthew Kliethermes and Laura A. Murray, “Trauma-Focused CBT for Youth with Complex Trauma”, Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol. 36, No. 6, 2012.

51 Ian G. Barron, Ghassan Abdallah and Patrick Smith, “Randomized Control Trial of a CBT Trauma Recovery Program in Palestinian Schools”, Journal of Loss and Trauma, Vol. 18, No. 4, 2013.

52 John McMullen, Paul O'Callaghan, Ciaran Shannon, Alastair Black and John Eakin, “Group Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy with Former Child Soldiers and other War-Affected Boys in the DR Congo: A Randomised Controlled Trial”, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 54, No. 11, 2013.

53 Paul O'Callaghan, John McMullen, Ciaran Shannon, Harry Rafferty and Alastair Black, “A Randomized Controlled Trial of Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Sexually Exploited, War-Affected Congolese Girls”, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 52, No. 4, 2013.

54 Theresa S. Betancourt, Ryan McBain, Elizabeth A. Newnham, Adeyinka Akinsulure-Smith, Robert T. Brennan, John R. Weisz and Nate Hansen, “A Behavioral Intervention for War-Affected Youth in Sierra Leone: A Randomized Controlled Trial”, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 53, No. 12, 2014.

55 Ibid.

56 Alastair Ager, Bree Akesson, Lindsay Stark, Eirini Flouri, Braxton Okot, Faith McCollister and Neil Boothby, “The Impact of the School-Based Psychosocial Structured Activities (PSSA) Program on Conflict-Affected Children in Northern Uganda,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 52, No. 11, 2011.

57 Wietse A. Tol, Ivan H. Komproe, Mark J. D. Jordans, Aline Ndayusaba, Prudence Ntamutumba, Heather Sipsma, Eva S. Smallegange, Robert D. Macy and Joop T. V. M. de Jong, “School-Based Mental Health Intervention for Children in War-Affected Burundi: A Cluster Randomized Trial”, BMC Medicine, Vol. 12, No. 56, 2014.

58 Mark J. D. Jordans, Ivan H. Komproe, Wietse A. Tol, Brandon A. Kohrt, Nagendra P. Luitel, Robert D. Macy and Joop T. V. M. de Jong, “Evaluation of a Classroom-Based Psychosocial Intervention in Conflict-Affected Nepal: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial”, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 51, No. 7, 2016.

59 Wietse A. Tol, Ivan H. Komproe, Mark J. D. Jordans, Anavarathan Vallipuram, Heather Sipsma, Sambasivamoorthy Sivayokan, Robert D. Macy and Joop T. V. M. de Jong, “Outcomes and Moderators of a Preventive School-Based Mental Health Intervention for Children Affected by War in Sri Lanka: A Cluster Randomized Trial”, World Psychiatry, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2012.

60 Ibid.

61 Jeff Crisp, The Role of the UN Agencies in Rohingya Genocide since 1978, Panel Discussion, International Conference on Protection and Accountability in Burma, New York, 2019; Alvin K. Tay, Rafiqul Islam, Andrew Riley, Courtney Welton-Mitchell, Benedicte Duchesne, Valerie Waters, Derrick Silove and Peter Ventevogel, Culture, Context, and Mental Health of Rohingya Refugees: A Review for Staff in Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Programmes for Rohingya Refugees, UNHCR, Geneva, 2018.

62 J. Crisp, above note 61; A. K. Tay et al., above note 61.

63 Burma Citizenship Law, 15 October 1982.

64 Jobair Alam, “The Rohingya of Myanmar: Theoretical Significance of the Minority Status”, Asian Ethnicity, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2018.

65 Rohingya Crisis in Cox's Bazar District, Bangladesh, Health Sector Bulletin No. 6, 6 September 2018, available at: www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/documents/files/healthsectorcxbbanbulletinno6.pdf; Razia Sultana, Rape by Command: Sexual Violence as a Weapon against the Rohingya, Kalandan Press, Chittagong, 2018.; A. K. Tay et al., above note 61.

66 Mohsin Habib, Christine Jubb, Salahuddin Ahmad, Masudur Rahman and Henri Pallard, “Forced Migration of Rohingya: An Untold Experience”, SSRN Electronic Journal, 2018, available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3242696.

67 Save The Children, “Alarming Number of Rohingya Refugee Children Orphaned by Brutal Violence, New Save the Children Study Finds”, available at: www.savethechildren.org.uk/news/media-centre/press-releases/alarming-number-of-rohingya-refugee-children-orphaned-by-brutal-.

68 UNICEF, UNICEF Humanitarian Action for Children 2019: Overview, New York, January 2019, available at: www.unicef.org/media/48796/file/Humanitarian-action-overview-cover-eng.pdf.

69 World Vision, “Psychological Support for Refugee Children of Myanmar in Bangladesh”, 22 January 2018, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/psychological-support-refugee-children-myanmar-bangladesh.

70 Nargis Islam, Nishat F. Rahman and Naila Z. Khan, “Trauma and Mental Health in the Rohingya Camps: One Year On”, in BRAC Health Watch: Health Sector's Response to the Rohingya Crisis, BRAC University, 2019.

71 Susan Llewelyn and Katie Aafjes-van Doorn (eds), Clinical Psychology: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2018, p. xvi.

72 Moshin Habib, Christine A. Jubb, Salahuddin Ahmad and Masudur Rahman, Forced Migration of Rohingya: The Untold Experience, Ontario International Development Agency, Ottawa, 2018.

73 Crick Lund, Carrie Brooke-Sumner, Florence Baingana, Emily Claire Baron, Erica Breuer, Prabha Chandra, Johannes Haushofer, Helen Herman, Mark Jordans, Christian Kieling, Maria Elena Medina-Mora, Ellen Morgan, Olayinka Omigbodun, Wietse Tole, Vikram Patel and Shekhar Saxena, “Social Determinants of Mental Disorders and the Sustainable Development Goals: A Systematic Review of Reviews”, The Lancet Psychiatry, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2018; World Health Organization (WHO), Social Determinants of Mental Health, Geneva, 2014; Erik Blas and Anand Sivasankara Kurup, Equity, Social Determinants and Public Health Programmes, WHO, Geneva, 2010.

74 I. Weissbecker et al., above note 10; Lisa D. Butler, Filomena M. Critelli and Janice Carella, Trauma and Human Rights: Integrating Approaches to Address Human Suffering, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019.

75 Sebastian Porsdam Mann, Valerie J. Bradley and Barbara J. Sahakian, “Human Rights-Based Approaches to Mental Health”, Health and Human Rights Journal, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2016.

76 Nidhi Wali, Wen Chen, Lal B. Rawal, A. S. M. Amanullah and Andre M. N. Renzaho, “Integrating Human Rights Approaches into Public Health Practices and Policies to Address Health Needs amongst Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh: A Systematic Review and Meta-ethnographic Analysis”, Archives of Public Health, Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018.

77 Malin Eriksson, Mehdi Ghazinour and Anne Hammarstrom, “Different Uses of Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory in Public Mental Health Research: What Is Their Value for Guiding Public Mental Health Policy and Practice?”, Social Theory and Health, Vol.16, No. 4, 2018.

78 Ibid.; Michael Marmot, “Social Determinants of Health Inequalities”, The Lancet, Vol. 365, No. 9464, 2005; Jamie Pearce and Danny Dorling, “Tackling Global Health Inequalities: Closing the Health Gap in a Generation”, Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, Vol. 41, No. 1, 2009.

79 Vikram Patel, Crick Lund, Sean Hatherill, Sophie Plagerson, Joanne Corrigall, Michelle Funk and Alan J. Flisher, “Mental Disorders: Equity and Social Determinants”, in Erik Blas and Anand Sivasankara Kurup (eds), Equity, Social Determinants and Public Health Programmes, WHO, Geneva, 2010; Vikram Patel, Jürgen Unützer et al., “The Lancet Commission on Global Mental Health and Sustainable Development”, The Lancet, Vol. 392, No. 10157, 2018; Catherine Panter-Brick and Mark Eggerman, “Anthropology and Global Mental Health: Depth, Breadth, and Relevance”, in Ross G. White, Sumeet Jain, David M. R. Orr and Ursula M. Read (eds), The Palgrave Handbook of Sociocultural Perspectives on Global Mental Health, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2017; Ross G. White, Maria Grazia Imperiale and Em Perera, “The Capabilities Approach: Fostering Contexts for Enhancing Mental Health and Well-being Across the Globe”, Globalization and Health, Vol.12, No. 1, 2016.

80 WHO, above note 73.

81 Michaela Hynie, “The Social Determinants of Refugee Mental Health in the Post-Migration Context: A Critical Review”, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 63, No. 5, 2018; C. Lund et al., above note 73; Andrew Riley, Andrea Varner, Peter Ventevogel, M. M. Taimur Hasan and Courney Welton-Mitchell, “Daily Stressors, Trauma Exposure, and Mental Health among Stateless Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh”, Transcultural Psychiatry, Vol. 54, No. 3, 2017.

82 A. K. Tay et al., above note 61.

83 Nimisha Patel, “The Mantra of ‘Do No Harm’ in International Healthcare Responses to Refugee People”, in Thomas Wenzel and Boris Drozdek (eds), An Uncertain Safety: Integrative Health Care for the 21st Century Refugees, Springer International, Cham, 2019, p. 160.

84 Ibid.

85 China Mills, “The Psychiatrization of Poverty: Rethinking the Mental Health–Poverty Nexus”, Social and Personality Psychology Compass, Vol. 9, No. 5, 2015.

86 N. Patel, above note 83.

87 N. Islam et al., above note 70.

88 A. Riley et al., above note 81.

89 A. K. Tay et al., above note 61.

90 Rajat Sanker Roy Biswas, Mohammad Gias Uddin and Mohammad Mostafa, “Pattern of Epilepsy Patients Visiting in a Psychiatry Outpatient Department”, Journal of the Scientific Society, Vol. 45, No. 1, 2018.

91 Mina Gajjar, Esther Geva, Tom Humphries, Michele Peterson-Badali and Hiroshi Otsubo, “A New Scale to Assess Culture-Specific Beliefs and Attitudes about Epilepsy”, Epilepsy & Behavior, Vol. 1, No. 4, 2000.

92 Penny Rhodes and Neil Small, “Crossing Continents: Meanings and Management of Epilepsy among People of Pakistani Origin Living in the UK”, in Jaya Pinikahana and Christine Walker (eds), Society, Behaviour and Epilepsy, Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, NY, 2011.

93 Murphy Halliburton, “Finding a Fit: Psychiatric Pluralism in South India and Its Implications for WHO Studies of Mental Disorder”, Transcultural Psychiatry, Vol. 41, No. 1, 2004.

94 A. K. Tay et al., above note 61.

95 B. Heidi Ellis, Alisa K. Lincoln, Meredith E. Charney, Rebecca Ford-Paz, Molly Benson and Lee Strunin, “Mental Health Service Utilization of Somali Adolescents: Religion, Community, and School as Gateways to Healing”, Transcultural Psychiatry, Vol. 47, No. 5, 2010.

96 Amy L. Ai, Christopher Peterson and Bu Huang, “The Effect of Religious-Spiritual Coping on Positive Attitudes of Adult Muslim Refugees from Kosovo and Bosnia”, International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2003.

97 A. K. Tay et al., above note 61.

98 Ken MacLean, “The Rohingya Crisis and the Practices of Erasure”, Journal of Genocide Research, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2019.

99 UNICEF, “Rohingya Crisis”, 2019, available at: www.unicef.org/emergencies/rohingya-crisis.

100 Naila Z. Khan, Asma Begum Shilpi, Razia Sultana, Shaoli Sarker, Sultana Razia, Bipasha Roy, Abu Arif, Misbah Uddin Ahmed, Subas Chandra Saha and Helen McConachie, “Displaced Rohingya Children at High Risk for Mental Health Problems: Findings from Refugee Camps within Bangladesh”, Child: Care, Health and Development, Vol. 45, No. 1, 2019.

101 Erin P. Hambrick, Thomas W. Brawner and Bruce D. Perry. “Timing of Early-Life Stress and the Development of Brain-Related Capacities”, Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol. 13, 2019.

102 “Bangladesh: Three Decades of Service and Sacrifice in UN Peacekeeping”, UN News, available at: https://news.un.org/en/gallery/520251.

103 Abhishek Bhatia, Ayesha Mahmud, Arlan Fuller, Rebecca Shin, Azad Rahman, Tanvir Shatil, Mahmuda Sultana, K. A. M. Morshed, Jennifer Leaning and Satchit Balsari, “The Rohingya in Cox's Bazar: When the Stateless Seek Refuge”, Health and Human Rights Journal, Vol. 20, No. 2, 2018.

104 N. Islam, above note 70.

105 “Child Friendly Spaces (CFS) Minimum Standards: Cox's Bazar, Rohingya Emergency Response”, available at: www.humanitarianlibrary.org/sites/default/files/2019/02/cfs_minimum_standard_-_cxb_cpss_2018.pdf.

106 Ibid.

107 Lego Foundation, “Play Labs, BRAC”, available at: www.legofoundation.com/en/what-we-do/programmes-and-projects/play-labs-brac/; BRAC, “Humanitarian Play Labs: Helping Rohingya Children Heal and Learn through Play”, available at: www.brac.net/latest-news/item/1213-humanitarian-play-labs-helping-rohingya-children-heal-and-learn-through-play.

108 Médecins Sans Frontières, “Shanti Khana: Bringing Peace to Rohingya Refugees”, Project Update, 28 September 2018, available at: www.msf.org/shanti-khana-bringing-peace-rohingya-refugees.

109 Translators without Borders, “Translators without Borders Launches Language Tool for Rohingya Humanitarian Response”, 19 June 2018, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/translators-without-borders-launches-language-tool-rohingya-humanitarian-response.

110 A. K. Tay et al., above note 61.

111 M. R. Alam, “Polygamy in Rohingya Crisis and Aftermath”, International Conference on Rohingya Crisis in Bangladesh: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions, North South University, Dhaka, 27–28 July 2019; Maliha Khan, “Polygamy in the Camps”, Daily Star, 2 August 2019.

112 N. Islam, above note 70.

113 Ibid.

114 I. Weissbecker et al., above note 10.

115 WHO and Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Social Determinants of Mental Health, Geneva, 2014.

116 UNHCR and ILO, Rapid Appraisal of the Livelihood Capability of the Refugees: Kutupalong and Nayapara Refugee Camps, Dhaka, 2009.

117 Food Security Sector, Support to Livelihoods of Host Communities and Resilience Opportunities for the Rohingya Refugees, Livelihood Working Group, Cox's Bazar, 2018, available at: https://fscluster.org/sites/default/files/documents/advocating_for_livelihoods_of_host_communities_and_resilience_opportunities_for_rohingya_refugees_0.pdf.

118 Michelle Azorbo, Microfinance and Refugees: Lessons Learned from UNHCR's Experience, Research Paper No. 199, Policy Development and Evaluation Service, UNHCR, Geneva, 2011.

119 Ainul, Sigma, Ehsan, Iqbal, Haque, Eashita, Amin, Sajeda, Rob, Ubaidur, Melnikas, Andrea J. and Falcone, Joseph, Marriage and Sexual and Reproductive Health of Rohingya Adolescents and Youth in Bangladesh: A Qualitative Study, Population Council, Dhaka, 2018Google Scholar.

120 Agenda for Humanity, “Supporting the Livelihoods of Refugees in Long-Term Displacement”, available at: www.agendaforhumanity.org/news-details/6640.

121 UNHCR and ILO, above note 116.