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The “non-religious” red cross emblem and Japan

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 February 2011

N. Margaret Kosuge
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International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 85 , Issue 849: Les nouveaux types de conflits/New types of conflicts , March 2003 , pp. 75 - 94
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Copyright © International Committee of the Red Cross 2003

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References

1 Kokusai Jind-oh-o Senmonka Kaigi, Kokusai jind -oh -o to wagakuni no kadai – h -okokusho. Nihon Sekij-ujisha, Tokyo, 1997, pp. 3–4, 54. The principal publications concerning the Red Cross emblem are the following: François Bugnion, The Emblem of the Red Cross: A Brief History, ICRC, Geneva, 1977Google Scholar; “The red cross and red crescent emblem”, International Review of the Red Cross, No. 272, 09–10 1989, pp. 408–419Google Scholar; Towards a Comprehensive Solution to the Question of the Emblem, ICRC, Geneva, August 2000Google Scholar (translation of an article in French originally published in International Review of the Red Cross, No. 338, 06 2000Google Scholar); Bouvier, Antoine, “Special aspects of the use of the red cross or red crescent emblem”, International Review of the Red Cross, No. 272, 09–10 1989, pp. 438–458Google Scholar; “Unity and plurality of the emblems”, International Review of the Red Cross, No. 289, 07–08 1992, pp. 333–338.Google Scholar

2 Masaharu, Yanaihara, “Kindai kokusaih-o riron ni okeru kokka,”Google Scholar in Rekishi to H-oh-o Hensh-u linkai (ed.), Rekishi to h -oh -o 4 – teikoku to kokumin kokka, Aoki Shoten, Tokyo, September 2000, pp. 59–78.

3 See also Kosuge, N. Margaret, “Religion, the Red Cross and the Japanese treatment of POWs”, in Towle, Philip, Kosuge, N. Margaret and Kibata, Yoichi (eds), Japanese Prisoners of War, Humbledon and London, London, 2000, pp. 149–162.Google Scholar

4 Holland, Thomas Erskine, “Nisshin sens-o ni okeru kokusaih-o,”Google Scholar in Mutsu Munemitsu kankei bunsho, Kokusai Toshokan Kensei Shiry-okan, items 78–79; Fujimura Michio, “Nisshin sens-o,” in Iwanami k -oza: Nihon rekishi 16 (kindai 3), 1976, Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo, pp. 2–3, 41. For a discussion of the question of the separability or non-separability of Meiji Japanese religion and civilization, see Yamaguchi Teruomi, Meiji kokka to sh -uky -o, Tokyo University Press, Tokyo, 1999, pp. 66–107, 329–350. On perceptions of the Red Cross Convention in modern Japan, see Umetani Noboru, “Nihon to senji kokusai j-oki – Meiji to Sh-owa no rakusa,” in Seiji Keizaishi Gakkai (ed.), Nihon seiji keizaishigaku, No. 343, 01 1995, pp. 1–15Google Scholar; Yoshito, Kita, “Nihongun no kokusai ninshiki to horyono toriatukai,”Google Scholar in Hirama Y-oichi et al (eds), Nichiei k -ory -ushi, 1600–2000,: Gunji, Vol. 3, Tokyo University Press, Tokyo, 2001, pp. 276–303; Hisakazu, Fujita, “POWs and international law”Google Scholar, Towle, Kosuge and Kibata, op. cit. (note 3), pp. 87–102; “Sens-o h-o kara jind-o h-o he-senkanki nihon no ‘jikko’”, in Nihon h-ogakkai (ed.), Nihon to kokusaih -o no hyakunen, Vol. 3 (anzenhosh-o), Sanseido, Tokyo, 2001, pp.143–165.

5 Bugnion, , op. cit. (note 1), pp. 20–25Google Scholar. See also the journal Nihon Sekij -oji, January 1907, p. 26.

6 At this conference Japan, France, Italy and the Netherlands expressed approval of the adoption by Turkey and Persia of the “red crescent” and “red lion and sun” emblems respectively. This subject had previously been deferred. The only countries which voted on maintaining a single emblem were Rumania and Chile. See Bugnion, , op. cit. (note 1), pp. 29–36.Google Scholar

7 See Checkland, Olive, Humanitarianism and the Emperor's Japan, 1877–1977, St Martin's Press, London, 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

8 Michiko, Kameyama, Kindai Nihon kangoshi Vol I: Nihon Sekijūjisha to kangofu, Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1983, pp. 38–39Google Scholar; see also Nihon Sekij-ujisha, Nihon Sekij -ujisha shashi k -o, Tokyo, 1911, p. 154.

9 Okita K-oji, “Sugiura J-ug-o no ‘rigaku’ shis-o to haiyaron,” in Doshisha University Humanities Research Center (ed.), Haiyaron no kenky -u, Ky-obunkan, Kyoto, 1989, pp. 223–239. Sugiura j-ug-o, “Kat-o Hiroyuki kun no tokuikuron,” quoted in Okita, ibid., pp.223–224.

10 Seiichi, Kawamata, Nihon Sekij -ujisha hattatsushi, Meibunsha, Tokyo, 1915, p. 6.Google Scholar

11 See Kosuge, , op. cit. (note 3), pp. 151–152.Google Scholar

12 Yoshida Yutaka, “Kokumin kaihei' no rinen to ch-oheisei,” in Yui Masaomi, Fujiwara Akira and Yoshida Yutaka, (eds), Nihon kindai shis -o taikei, Vol. 4: guntai, heishi, Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo, 1989, pp. 473–477.Google Scholar

13 Nagao, Ariga, Nisshin sen'eki kokusaih -oron, Rikugun Daigakkō, Tokyo, August 1896, pp. 169–172.Google Scholar

14 Ibid., pp. 171–172.

15 Letter from the IRCS Yamanashi Branch President, Count Kiyozumi lenori, to Tanabe Yūei, dated 15 February 1898, in Tanabe Aritsune-ke bunsho, Archives of Enzan City Educational Committee.

16 Kawamata, , op. cit. (note 10), p. 429.Google Scholar

17 Ibid., pp. 439–440.

18 Takeshi, Hara, “Reiraku' to shite no Hinomaru, Kimigayo”, Sekai, 02 2000, pp. 109–119.Google Scholar

19 See Adolf Picte, transl. Inoue Masata-o, Sekij -uji no shokisoku (The Principles of the Red Cross), Japanese Red Cross Society, Tokyo, 1958, pp. 126–128.

20 On the growing sensitivity to war deaths and suffering in Western society, and especially in Great Britain, from the Crimean War to the First World War, see N. Margaret Kosuge, “Senshitai no hakken – jind-oshugi to aikokushugi o h-oy-o saseta shintai,” in Suzuki Akihito, and Ishizuka Hisao (eds), Shintai ibunkaron – kankaku to yokub -o, Keio University Press, Tokyo, 2002, pp. 349–384.

21 Picte, , op. cit. (note 19), p. 130.Google Scholar

22 On the background to the changes in perceptions of wartime international law that came about in Japan during the 1930s, see Kanda Fuhito, “Kindai Ninon no sens-o – horyo seisaku o ch'ushin to shite”, in the quarterly journal Kikan Sens -o Sekinin Kenky -o, No. 9, autumn 1995, pp. 10–17.

23 On Japanese lenient treatment of enemy POWs during the wars, see Towle, Philip, “Introduction”, pp. xi–xiiiGoogle Scholar; isakazu, Fujita, op. cit. (note 4), p. 92Google Scholar; Yoichi, Kibata, “Japanese treatment of British prisoners: The historical context, p. 137Google Scholar; Kosuge, N. Margaret, op. cit. (note 3), pp. 154–155.Google Scholar

24 Akira, Fujiwara, Uejini shita Eireitachi, Aoki Shoten, Tokyo, 2001, pp. 221–222.Google Scholar

25 Ninagawa Arata, Sekij -uji j -oyaku nit suite, Japanese Red Cross Society, Tokyo, 1934, pp. 5–6.

26 Ibid., pp. 41–44.

27 Fujiwara Akira, “Nitch-u sens-o ni okeru horyo gyakutai”, in Kikan Sens -o Sekinin Kenky -u, No. 9, autumn 1995, pp. 18–23.

28 On how guerrilla warfare in China affected the Japanese Army's treatment of POWs, see Towle, Philip, “The Japanese Army and the POWs”, Japanese Prisoners of War, op. cit. (note 3), pp. 1–16.Google Scholar

29 Publication sent out by the head of the Mie Village sub-branch of the JRCS Yamanashi Branch, dated February 1939 and preserved in a “Red Cross Scrapbook for the Year 1939” compiled by the Matsusato Village Office, Yamanashi Prefecture, now kept in the Archives of the Enzan City Educational Committee.

30 N. Margaret Kosuge, “S-od-oin to Nisseki bunku” (General Mobilization and the Japanese Red Cross Society Sub-branches), in Enzan City History Compilation Committee (ed.), Enzan-shi shi, ts -oshi hen, gekan, Enzan City, Yamanashi Prefecture, 1998Google Scholar. See especially pp. 352–354.

31 For a discussion of the societal dead and wartime Japanese society, see Siordet, Frederic, “Inter Arma Caritas, L'oeuvre du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge pendant la seconde guerre mondiale,” Bulletin International des Societes de la Croix-Rouge (French edition), No. 535, 03 1947, p. 479.Google Scholar

32 Akira, Fujiwara, Uejini shita Eireitachi, op. cit. (note 24), pp. 222–223Google Scholar. Kosuge, N. Margaret, op. cit. (note 3), pp. 157–158Google Scholar. Tokushi, Kasahara, “Remembering the Nanking Massacre,” in Fei Fei, , Sabella, Robert and Liu, David (eds), Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing, M.E. Sharpe, New York; 2002, pp. 75–94.Google Scholar

33 Fujiwara, , op. cit. (note 27), pp. 225–228Google Scholar. Yuji, Kusunoki, Nomonhan jiken tte nandattanoka, private edition, 1994.Google Scholar

34 The quoted passages are from Seishin ky -oiku shiry -o (Materials for Spiritual Education) compiled by the Army's Ky-oiku S-okanbu, Vol. 9, 1940, pp. 39–41.

35 The quoted passages are from “Furyo ni kansuru ky-okun,” Kansan ky -oshiry -o. No. 29, reprinted in Chaen Yoshio, Dainippon teikokukagaichi furyo sh -uy -ojo, Fuji Shuppan, Tokyo, 1990.

36 Miura T-osaku, Senjinkun seikai, T-oy-o Tosho, Tokyo, 1940, p. 81.

37 For recent research on the subject see, for example, Jane Flower, transl. N. Margaret Kosuge. “Nihongun no Eigun horyo, 1940–1945,” in Kibata Y-oichi et al. (ed.), Nichiei k -ory -ushi 1600–2000: Seiji Gaiko, Vol. 2, Tokyo University Press, Tokyo, 2000, pp. 167–194.

38 Nihon Sekij-ujjisha, Nihon Sekij -ujisha shashi k -o. No. 5, Tokyo, 1969, pp. 114–116.

39 For example, the transcripts of speeches given by sixth graders at the Kasuga Elementary School (Yamanashi Prefecture) and congratulatory messages given by Kasuga, Takumi and Anagiri Red Cross Brigade youth representatives on 14 September 1937, at the formal ceremony for sending off a Red Cross relief brigade under the sponsorship of the Yamanashi Branch of the JRCS, as recorded in the journal Yamanashi Ky -oiku, No. 475, October 1937, pp. 48–50.

40 Instruction sent out by the head of the J RCS Yamanashi Branch, dated 23 December 1939 and preserved in the “Red Cross Scrapbook for the Year 1939”.

41 “Tatakafu sekij-uji (the fighting red cross)A”, photograph by Matsune Fujio, in Shashin Bunka, August 1943, photogravure.

42 The quoted passages are from Sat-o Kasaku, “Jihen to kokusaih-o kanken,” in Gaik -o Jih -o, No. 801, 1938, pp. 92–101.

43 T-oj-o proclamation at a meeting of the Privy Council, 18 April 1942; instructions from T-oj-o to the Commander of Zents-uji POW Camp, 30 May 1942; see also instructions from T-oj-o to newly appointed heads of detention camps for prisoners of war, 7 July 1942.

44 See Nagai Hitoshi, “Ajia Taiheiy-o Sens-o-ki no horyo seisaku – rikugun ch-u-o to kokusai j-oki,” in Kikan Sens -o Sekinin Kenky -u, No. 9, Autumn 1995.

45 Akira, Fujiwara, Nihon gunjishi, Vol. 1Google Scholar: senzen-hen, Ninon Hy-oronsha, Tokyo, 1987, especially pp. 120–122, 280–282.

46 Comment made by Philip Towle at Session 8 (“Post-war reconciliation: Japan's experience”), 18th International Peace Research Association Conference, Tampere, Finland, 5–9 August 2000.

47 Ichimata Masao, “Senpan saiban kenky-u yoron (ichi): 1929 nen horyo j-oyaku jun'y-o mondai”, in Kokusaih -o Gaik -o Zasshi, Vol. 66, No. 1, June 1967, p. 19.

48 Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its Activities during the Second World War (09 1939–06 1947)Google Scholar, Vol. 1: General Activities, Geneva, 05 1948, p. 444.Google Scholar

49 Ibid., p. 445.

50 Taisei Yokusankai Ch-osabu (ed.), Ichioku fungeki Beiei gekisai und -o shiry -o, October 1944.