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Reparation for victims of serious violations of international humanitarian law: New developments

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 May 2022

Elizabeth Salmón  and
Juan-Pablo Pérez-León-Acevedo
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Abstract

This article aims to determine what important new developments have emerged in reparation for victims of serious violations of international humanitarian law (IHL). Our hypothesis is that there have been significant new developments in this area of particular relevance to IHL and that reparation for victims of serious violations of IHL is increasingly being incorporated into this body of law as one of its key components. It is submitted that the following developments are evidence of this gradual transformation of IHL: (i) broad recognition of the right of victims of serious violations of IHL to reparation; (ii) extension of the scope of the obligation to provide reparation under IHL to include non-State armed groups and individuals as well as States; (iii) the existence of innovative domestic reparation mechanisms complemented or supervised by regional courts, as evidenced by experiences in Latin America; and (iv) the reparation system of the International Criminal Court as a global mechanism.

Keywords

international humanitarian lawreparationvictimsserious violationsnew developments
Type
Selected articles
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 104 , Issue 919: Selected Articles , April 2022 , pp. 1315 - 1343
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC.

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Footnotes

*

This article was partially supported by the Academy of Finland (project 325535).

References

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14 Ibid.

15 Ibid., pp. 29–30.

16 ILC, above note 5, p. 87.

17 Ibid.

18 Rome Statute of the ICC, Art. 8; Law on the Establishment of the ECCC, Arts 6–7.

19 Rome Statute of the ICC, Art. 75; ECCC Internal Rules, Rules 23–23 quinquies.

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22 Ibid., p. 1441.

23 Ibid.

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25 Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People's Rights, Art. 3(1).

26 See ICJ, Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Separate Opinion of Judge Cançado-Trindade, 19 June 2012, para. 100; ICJ, Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Order of 6 December 2016, Separate Opinion of Judge Cançado-Trindade, paras 24–7.

27 ICJ, Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, 9 February 2022.

28 Ibid., paras 133–258.

29 UN Compensation Commission, Documents, available at: https://uncc.ch/documents (all internet references were accessed in March 2022).

30 Eritrea–Ethiopia Claims Commission, available at: https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/71/.

31 See Cristián Correa, “Operationalising the Right of Victims of War to Reparation”, in Cristián Correa, Shuichi Furuya and Clara Sandoval, Reparation for Victims of Armed Conflict, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020, pp. 126–63.

32 Ibid., pp. 101 and 107–108; Suichi Furuya, “The Right to Reparation for Victims of Armed Conflicts”, in C. Correa, S. Furuya and C. Sandoval, ibid., pp. 46–51.

33 UN General Assembly, Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly on 16 December 2005: Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, UN Doc. A/RES/60/147, 21 March 2006.

34 UN General Assembly, ibid., UN Principle 18.

35 C. Sandoval, above note 8, p. 46.

36 For more details, see Christian Marxsen, “Introduction: The Emergence of an Individual Right to Reparation for Victims of Armed Conflict”, in C. Correa, S. Furuya and C. Sandoval, above note 31, pp. 10–12; Anne Peters, “Conclusion: Reparation for Victims of Armed Conflict”, in C. Correa, S. Furuya and C. Sandoval, above note 31, pp. 268–70.

37 For example, Christine Evans, The Right to Reparation in International Law for Victims of Armed Conflict, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012, pp. 39–43 and 117–28; Paola Gaeta, “Are Victims of Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Entitled to Compensation?”, in Orna Ben-Naftali (ed.), International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011, pp. 305–27; S. Furuya, above note 32, pp. 16–91.

38 See S. Furuya, above note 32, pp. 16–91; C. Evans, ibid.; P. Gaeta, ibid., pp. 305–27; Clara Sandoval, “International Human Rights Adjudication, Subsidiarity, and Reparation for Victims of Armed Conflicts”, in C. Correa, S. Furuya and C. Sandoval, above note 31, pp. 179–264; M. Sassòli, above note 1, pp. 91–8; Emily Crawford and Alison Pert, International Humanitarian Law, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020, pp. 289–90.

39 For example, Dinah Shelton, Remedies in International Human Rights Law, 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2015; Carla Ferstman and Mariana Goetz (eds), Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, Brill, Leiden/Boston, 2020.

40 Rainer Hofmann, “The 2010 International Law Association Declaration of International Law Principles on Reparation for Victims of Armed Conflict”, in C. Marxsen and A. Peters, above note 7, p. 33.

41 J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck, above note 12, pp. 541–9.

42 Ibid., p. 550.

43 For example, Moffett, Luke, Justice for Victims Before the International Criminal Court, Routledge, Abingdon, 2014, pp. 149–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kleffner, Jann K., “The Applicability of International Humanitarian Law to Organized Armed Groups”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 882, 2011, pp. 454–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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45 J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck, above note 12, p. 550.

46 Ibid., pp. 549–50.

47 For example, Paloma Blázquez, “Does an Armed Group Have an Obligation to Provide Reparations to its Victims? Construing an Obligation to Provide Reparations for Violations of International Humanitarian Law”, in James Summers and Alex Gough (eds), Non-State Actors and International Obligations, Brill/Nijhoff, Leiden, 2018, pp. 406–28; Íñigo-Álvarez, Laura, “The Obligation to Provide Reparations by Armed Groups”, Netherlands International Law Review, Vol. 67, No. 3, 2020CrossRefGoogle Scholar; S. Furuya, above note 32, pp. 62–4; Herman, Olivia, “Beyond the State of Play: Establishing a Duty of Non-State Armed Groups to Provide Reparations”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 102, No. 915, 2020CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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49 Jurisdicción Especial para la Paz, Acuerdo Final para la Terminación del Conflicto y la Construcción de una Paz Estable y Duradera, 24 November 2016, p. 127, available at: https://www.jep.gov.co/Marco%20Normativo/Normativa_v2/01%20ACUERDOS/N01.pdf.

50 Ibid., p. 8.

51 Nelson Sánchez and Adriana Rudling, Reparations in Colombia: Where to?, Policy Paper, Queen's University, Belfast, 2019, p. 7.

52 Jurisdicción Especial para la Paz, above note 49, pp. 129–30.

53 N. Sánchez and A. Rudling, above note 51, p. 23.

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid., p. 7.

56 María Cielo Linares, Setting an Agenda for Sustainable Peace: Transitional Justice and Prevention in Colombia, International Center for Transitional Justice, New York, 2021, pp. 46–8 and 61.

57 N. Sánchez and A. Rudling, above note 51, p. 64.

58 P. Blázquez, above note 47, p. 428.

59 Ibid., p. 409.

60 J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck, above note 12, p. 549.

61 P. Blázquez, above note 47, p. 427.

62 J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck, above note 12, pp. 549–50.

63 For example, C. Evans, above note 37, pp. 213–16; P. Blázquez, above note 47, pp. 418–26; L. Íñigo-Álvarez, above note 47; O. Herman, above note 47.

64 See, for example, J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck, above note 12, pp. 549–50.

65 See Camins, Emily L., “Needs or Rights? Exploring the Limitations of Individual Reparations for Violations of International Humanitarian Law”, International Journal of Transitional Justice, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2016CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 The Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-Conflict Societies: Report of the Secretary General, UN Doc. S/2004/616, 23 August 2004, para. 2.

67 J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck, above note 12, p. 550.

68 See Rivera, Vicente Torrijos and Osorio, Juan David Abella, “The FARC's Behavior after the Signing of the Peace Agreement”, Revista Científica General José María Córdova, Vol. 16, No. 24, 2018Google Scholar.

69 See Olivia Herman, “Reparative Justice in Colombia: A Role for Armed Non-State Actors?”, JusticeInfo.Net, 17 December 2018, available at: https://www.justiceinfo.net/en/39792-reparative-justice-in-colombia-a-role-for-armed-non-state-actors.html.

70 BBC, “FARC reconoce por primera vez ‘crudeza y dolor provocados’ desde sus filas”, 20 August 2013, available at: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2013/08/130820_ultnot_farc_admision_mr.

71 L. Íñigo-Álvarez, above note 47, pp. 441–2.

72 Ibid., p. 440.

73 See Moffett, Luke, “Violence and Repair: The Practice and Challenges of Non-State Armed Groups Engaging in Reparations”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 102, No. 915, 2020, p. 1077CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 P. Blázquez, above note 47, p. 428.

75 CVR, Informe Final, Lima, 2003, Conclusiones, paras 1 and 12.

76 Ibid., para. 2.

77 Ibid., para. 13.

78 Ibid., paras 28 and 55.

79 Julie Guillerot, Reparations in Peru: 15 Years of Delivering Redress, Queen's University, Belfast, September 2019, p. 11, available at: https://reparations.qub.ac.uk/assets/uploads/Peru-Report-ENG-LR-2.pdf.

80 Ibid., pp. 15–16.

81 C. Correa, above note 31, p. 132.

82 Ibid., pp. 132 and 135.

83 Julie Guillerot, Alive in the Demand for Change: Transitional Justice and Prevention in Peru, International Center for Transitional Justice, New York, 2021, pp. 26–7.

84 C. Correa, above note 31, p. 135.

85 Consejo de Reparaciones, Todos los Nombres, Lima, 2018, pp. 20, 27 and 29.

86 Lucien Chauvin, “Forced Sterilization in Peru: ‘After Decades in Limbo, There Will Finally be a Decision’”, JusticeInfo.Net, 15 April 2021, available at: https://www.justiceinfo.net/en/76073-forced-sterilization-peru-decades-limbo-finally-decision.html?mc_cid=71b937d2f4&mc_eid=35e10b1c9f.

87 Act 28,592, Art. 3; Supreme Decree 015-2006-JUS, Art. 5.

88 Act 28,592, Art. 5.

89 Ron Dudai, “Closing the Gap: Symbolic Reparations and Armed Groups”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 883, 2011, p. 792.

90 Ibid. See also UN General Assembly, above note 33, UN Principle 22(e).

91 Supreme Court of Justice of Peru, Abimael Guzmán Reinoso et al., Judgment, 26 November 2007, p. 121.

92 CEH, Guatemala, Memory of Silence: Conclusions and Recommendations, UN Office for Project Services (UNOPS), Guatemala, 1999, pp. 17 and 30.

93 Ibid., p. 20; Denis Martínez and Luisa Gómez, Reparations for Victims of the Armed Conflict in Guatemala, Queen's University, Belfast, 2019, p. 5.

94 CEH, above note 92, pp. 38–41.

95 C. Correa, above note 31, p. 130; Comprehensive Agreement on Human Rights, March 1994, para. 8(1).

96 CEH, above note 92, pp. 49–52; C. Correa, above note 31, p. 130.

97 C. Correa, above note 31, p. 130.

98 Ibid.

99 Government Decision 258-2003, Art. 2 (amended).

100 Ibid., Art. 1 (amended).

101 C. Correa, above note 31, p. 131.

102 Ibid.

103 D. Martínez and L. Gómez, above note 93, p. 23.

104 R. Dudai, above note 89, p. 792.

105 UN General Assembly, above note 33, UN Principle 22(e).

106 P. Blázquez, above note 47, p. 420.

107 UN General Assembly, above note 33, UN Principle 22(b).

108 CEH, above note 92, paras 127–8.

109 P. Blázquez, above note 47, p. 421.

110 See Commission on the Truth for El Salvador, From Madness to Hope: The 12-Year War in El Salvador, The Report of the Commission on the Truth for El Salvador, San Salvador/New York, 1993.

111 Ibid.

112 Ibid., pp. 196–7.

113 Gutiérrez, Martha, “Negar el pasado: Reparaciones en Guatemala y El Salvador”, Colombia Internacional, Vol. 97, 2019, p. 200Google Scholar.

114 Visit to El Salvador: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion of Truth, Justice, Reparation and Guarantees of Non-Recurrence, UN Doc. A/HRC/45/45/Add.2, 9 July 2020, para. 49.

115 Ibid.

116 Ibid.

117 Ibid., para. 53.

118 M. Gutiérrez, above note 113, p. 200.

119 Special Rapporteur, above note 114, para. 104.

120 Commission on the Truth for El Salvador, above note 110, p. 20–2 and 185.

121 UN General Assembly, above note 33, UN Principle 23.

122 Special Rapporteur, above note 114, para. 62.

123 M. Gutiérrez, above note 113, pp. 178 and 191.

124 Ibid., p. 198.

125 C. Sandoval, above note 38, p. 196.

126 Ibid., p. 194.

127 C. Correa, above note 31, pp. 158–9.

128 See Salmón, Elizabeth, “Institutional Approach Between IHL and IHRL: Current Trends in the Jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights”, Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1–2, 2014CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Salmón, Elizabeth, “Entre la lex specialis y la metodología pick-and-choose: aproximaciones al derecho internacional humanitario en la jurisprudencia de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos”, Anuario Iberoamericano sobre Derecho Internacional Humanitario, Vol. 1, 2020CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

129 For example, I/A Court HR, Mapiripán Massacre v. Colombia, Judgment, 15 September 2005, para. 214.

130 For example, I/A Court HR, Cantoral Benavides v. Peru, Reparations and Costs, Judgment, 3 December 2001, para. 41.

131 Jo Pasqualucci, The Practice and Procedure of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013, pp. 188–250.

132 For example, ICC, Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06-3129-AnxA, Order for Reparations, 3 March 2015, paras 33 and 39–40.

133 See C. Sandoval, above note 38, pp. 197–221. See also Ochoa-Sánchez, Juan-Carlos, “Review by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and Domestic Reparation Programmes: Towards a More Nuanced Approach”, International Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 25, No. 6, 2021CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

134 C. Sandoval, above note 38, p. 190.

135 Ibid., p. 197.

136 I/A Court HR, Plan de Sánchez Massacre v. Guatemala, Reparations, Judgment, 19 November 2004, para. 125.

137 Ibid.

138 C. Sandoval, above note 38, p. 200.

139 Ibid.

140 I/A Court HR, Mapiripán Massacre, above note 129; I/A Court HR, Ituango Massacres v. Colombia, Judgment, 1 July 2006; I/A Court HR, Pueblo Bello Massacre v. Colombia, Judgment, 31 January 2006.

141 I/A Court HR, Massacres of El Mozote and Surrounding Areas v. El Salvador, Judgment, 25 October 2012.

142 J.-C. Ochoa-Sánchez, above note 133, p. 900.

143 I/A Court HR, Operation Genesis v. Colombia, Judgment, 20 November 2013, para. 465.

144 C. Sandoval, above note 38, p. 201.

145 Ibid., p. 206.

146 I/A Court HR, Operation Genesis, above note 143, paras 470–1; J.-C. Ochoa-Sánchez, above note 133, p. 901.

147 C. Sandoval, above note 38, p. 201. See also J.-C. Ochoa-Sánchez, above note 133, pp. 900–3.

148 I/A Court HR, Peasant Community of Santa Bárbara v. Peru, Judgment, 1 September 2015, paras 327–36; I/A Court HR, Tenorio Roca et al. v. Peru, Judgment, 22 June 2016, paras 281–4; C. Sandoval, above note 38, p. 209.

149 I/A Court HR, Tenorio Roca, ibid., paras 294–8; C. Sandoval, above note 38, p. 209.

150 I/A Court HR, Río Negro Massacres v. Guatemala, Judgment, 4 September 2012, para. 304; Members of the Village of Chichupac and neighbouring communities of the Municipality of Rabinal v. Guatemala, Judgment, 30 November 2016, para. 326.

151 C. Sandoval, above note 38, p. 208.

152 J.-C. Ochoa-Sánchez, above note 133, p. 902.

153 I/A Court HR, El Mozote, above note 141, Concurring Opinion of Judge Diego García-Sayán, para. 33.

154 I/A Court HR, Rochac Hernández et al. v. El Salvador, Judgment, 14 October 2014, para. 219.

155 Ibid., paras 219–23.

156 C. Sandoval, above note 38, pp. 201–13; N. Sánchez and A. Rudling, above note 51, p. 27.

157 I/A Court HR, Yarce et al. v. Colombia, Judgment, 22 November 2016, para. 326.

158 Ibid., para. 328.

159 I/A Court HR, Vereda La Esperanza v. Colombia, Judgment, 31 August 2017, paras 264–5.

160 N. Sánchez and A. Rudling, above note 51, p. 26.

161 J. Guillerot, above note 79, p. 49.

162 Ibid.

163 D. Martínez and L. Gómez, above note 93, pp. 41 and 43–4.

164 Ibid., p. 44.

165 Special Rapporteur, above note 114, paras 51–2.

166 Ibid., para. 69.

167 M. Sassòli, above note 1, pp. 151–67 and 443–51; Antonio Cassese, International Criminal Law, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, pp. 81–97.

168 M. Sassòli, above note 1, pp. 151–67; E. Crawford and A. Pert, above note 38, pp. 280–7.

169 S. Furuya, above note 32, pp. 62–5.

170 Ibid., pp. 287–9; M. Sassòli, above note 1, pp. 159–67 and 443–51.

171 Rome Statute of the ICC, Art. 8.

172 Rome Statute of the ICC, Art. 21(1)(b).

173 ICC, Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06-2904, Decision Establishing the Principles and Procedures to be Applied to Reparations, 7 August 2012.

174 ICC, Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07-3728-tENG, Order for Reparations, 24 March 2017.

175 ICC, Al-Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15-236, Reparations Order, 17 August 2017.

176 ICC, Ntaganda, ICC-01/04-02/06-2659, Reparations Order, 8 March 2021.

177 ICC, Lubanga, above note 132, paras 13–44.

178 For example, ICC, Al-Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15-171, Judgment and Sentence, 27 September 2016, paras 14–16.

179 Anne Peters, Beyond Human Rights: The Legal Status of the Individual in International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2016, pp. 60–232 and 255–81; C. Evans, above note 37, pp. 117–28.

180 Rome Statute of the ICC, Art. 17.

181 Martha Minow, Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History After Genocide and Mass Violence, Beacon Press, Boston, 1998, p. 93.

182 Pablo De Greiff, “Introduction”, in Pablo De Greiff (ed.), The Handbook of Reparations, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006, p. 2.

183 See Stahn, Carsten, “Reparative Justice after the Lubanga Appeals Judgment: New Prospects for Expressivism and Participatory Justice or ‘Juridified Victimhood’ by Other Means?”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 13, No. 4, 2015CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

184 ICC, Lubanga, above note 132, paras 20–1.

185 See Luke Moffett and Clara Sandoval, “Tilting at Windmills: Reparations and the International Criminal Court”, Leiden Journal of International Law, Vol. 34, No. 3, 2021.

186 Eva Dwertmann, The Reparation System of the International Criminal Court, Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden/Boston, 2010, pp. 51–6; Conor McCarthy, Reparations and Victim Support in the International Criminal Court, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012, pp. 317–18.

187 L. Moffett, above note 43, pp. 29–38.

188 Ibid., pp. 41–3.

189 See David O'Mahony and Jonathan Doak, Reimagining Restorative Justice: Agency and Accountability in the Criminal Process, Hart Publishing, London, 2017, pp. 76–89.

190 For example, ICC, Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06-2953, Decision on the Admissibility of the Appeals Against Trial Chamber I's “Decision Establishing the Principles and Procedures to be Applied to Reparations”, 14 December 2012, para. 67; ICC, Katanga, above note 174, para. 15. See also Juan Pablo Pérez-León-Acevedo, Victims’ Status at International and Hybrid Criminal Courts: Victims' Status as Witnesses, Victim Participants/Civil Parties and Reparations Claimants, Åbo Akademi University Press, Åbo, 2014, pp. 678–93; Christoph Safferling and Gurgen Petrossian, Victims Before the International Criminal Court: Definition, Participation, Reparation, Springer, Cham, 2021, p. 269.

191 See ICC, Lubanga, ibid., para. 67; ICC, Katanga, above note 174, para. 15.

192 Rome Statute of the ICC, Arts 75 and 82(4). See also case law: above notes 173–8.

193 ICC, Lubanga, above note 132, para. 6.

194 Ibid., paras 20–1.

195 Ibid., paras 10–11.

196 UN General Assembly, above note 33, UN Principles 19–23.

197 ICC, Lubanga, above note 132, paras 67–8.

198 ICC, Katanga, above note 174, para. 230.

199 Ibid., para. 302.

200 Ibid., para. 301.

201 UN General Assembly, above note 33, UN Principles 22–3.

202 ICC, Al-Mahdi, above note 175, paras 67–71 and 90–104.

203 Ibid., paras 60–2.

204 ICC, Ntaganda, above note 176, paras 7–9 and 186.

205 Ibid., paras 82–8 and 97.

206 E. Dwertmann, above note 186, p. 122.

207 Magarrell, Lisa, Reparations in Theory and Practice, International Center for Transitional Justice, New York, 2007, p. 5Google Scholar; Bassiouni, M. Cherif, “International Recognition of Victims’ Rights”, Human Rights Law Review, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2006, p. 257CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

208 Frédéric Mégret, “The Case for Collective Reparations Before the International Criminal Court”, in Jo-Anne Wemmers (ed.), Reparation for Victims of Crimes against Humanity: The Healing Role of Reparation, Routledge, London, 2014, pp. 177–79.

209 Ibid., p. 179.

210 For example, ICC, Lubanga, ICC-01/04-01/06-2864-tENG, Observations on the Sentence and Reparations by Victims a/0001/06 et al., 18 April 2012.

211 L. Magarrell, above note 207, pp. 5–6.

212 Ibid., p. 4.

213 For example, Stephen Cody et al., The Victims’ Court: A Study of 622 Victim Participants at the International Criminal Court, Human Rights Center, Berkeley, 2015.

214 For example, L. Moffett and C. Sandoval, above note 185, p. 4.

215 For example, ICC, Lubanga, above note 132, paras 34 and 71.