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The International Review of the Red Cross and the protection of civilians, c. 1919–1939

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 April 2019

Ben Holmes
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Abstract

This article will use past issues of the International Review of the Red Cross to examine how the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (the Movement) has engaged with the issue of civilian protection over the course of its history. Although founded to organize humanitarian relief and legal protection for wounded and sick combatants, the International Committee of the Red Cross and the wider Movement have increasingly incorporated civilian war victims into their remit since their establishment. Yet, as this article will highlight, this process has not been straightforward. Focussing on the critical period between the two World Wars, the article will use the Review to illustrate why the Red Cross began engaging with the “civilianization” of conflicts in response to the threat of new technologies like gas and aerial bombardment. Using articles from the Review to highlight the key challenges faced by the Movement in protecting civilians over this period, it will also consider the gaps in the Red Cross's initial conceptions of who “the civilian” was, why belligerents attacked them, and what was the best means of protecting them.

Keywords

aerial bombardmentchemical warfarecivilianscivilianizationFirst World WarSecond World Warinternational humanitarian lawprotection
Type
Articles
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 100 , Issue 907-909: 150 years of humanitarian reflection , April 2018 , pp. 115 - 141
Copyright
Copyright © icrc 2019 

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References

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7 Henceforth, this article will refer to the Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge (published between 1869 and 1918) as the Bulletin. It will refer to the International Review of the Red Cross (or the Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, published from 1919 to the present) as the Review. All quotations from French-language articles have been translated by the author.

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27 The ICRC's reports, however, were mainly confined to the larger civilian internment camps; gaining access to smaller battalions of forced labourers proved harder to achieve, meaning that the abuses against these prisoners received less international attention.

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38 The use of quote marks around the term “expert” throughout this article reflects the fact that humanitarian organizations and individuals often used somewhat tenuous definitions of their “expertise” or experience to justify their control of humanitarian operations, thus maintaining this control in the face of potential opposition from other humanitarian organizations, governments or recipients.

39 See Article 5 and the full Washington Treaty at the ICRC Treaties, States Parties and Commentaries Database, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yxmjcs2u (all internet references were accessed in March 2019).

40 On the non-ratification of the Washington Treaty's article on “noxious gasses”, see Schindler, Dietrich and Toman, Jiří, The Laws of Armed Conflicts: A Collection of Conventions, Resolutions and Other Documents, 3rd ed., Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1988, p. 113Google Scholar.

41 For another author's assessment of the successes and limits of the Geneva Protocol, see Andrew Webster, “The League of Nations, Disarmament and Internationalism”, in P. Clavin and G. Sluga (eds), above note 37, pp. 159–160.

42 Cramer, Lucien and Micheli, Horace, “La guerre chimique et ses conséquences”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 7, No. 81, 1925, pp. 678–679CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 Ibid., pp. 687–689. For more on the precise reasons why the delegates at this conference dismissed the possibility of policing the industry and the trading of chemicals, see “Conference for the Control of the International Trade in Arms, Munitions and Implements of War; General Committee Chemical and Bacteriological Warfare”, League of Nations Archive (LNA), R188/8/32639/43927.

44 L. Cramer and H. Micheli, above note 42, p. 692.

45 de Drachenfels, K., “La Croix-Rouge et la guerre chimique”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 9, No. 107, 1927, pp. 817–818Google Scholar.

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53 See the circular letter distributed to National Societies, in “Letter, ICRC to M. Dronsart (Belgian Red Cross), 3 October 1927”, ICRC Archive (ICRCA), CR159/120.

54 K. de Drachenfels, above note 45, pp. 812–813.

55 L. Cramer, above note 48, p. 109.

56 Ibid., pp. 100–101.

57 See for example, “Protection des populations civiles contre la guerre chimique”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 10, No. 114, 1928Google Scholar; Demolis, L., “A propos des Commissions mixtes nationales”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 10, No. 118, 1928Google Scholar; “Commissions mixtes nationales pour la protection des populations civiles contre la guerre chimique”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 12, No. 141, 1930Google Scholar; “Commissions mixtes nationales pour la protection des populations civiles contre la guerre aéro-chimique Commission internationale des experts”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 13, No. 156, 1931Google Scholar.

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60 See, for instance, Demolis, L., “Une bibliographie de la guerre chimique: Publication de la Croix-Rouge espagnole”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 13, No. 152, 1931Google Scholar.

61 Sieur, above note 47, p. 349.

62 L. Cramer and H. Micheli, above note 42, p. 693.

63 On the importance of moral disarmament in interwar internationalism, see Andrew Barros, “Turn Everyone into a Civilian: René Cassin and the UNESCO Project, 1919–1945”, in A. Barros and M. Thomas (eds), above note 4.

64 L. Cramer and H. Micheli, above note 42, p. 689.

65 Sieur, above note 47, p. 357.

66 See such concerns in the 1932 British draft aeronautical disarmament proposal, as outlined in Andrew Barros, “The Problems of Opening Pandora's Box: Strategic Bombing and the Civil–Military Divide, 1916–1939”, in A. Barros and M. Thomas (eds), above note 4, pp. 169–170.

67 For Germany, see the exercises carried out before and after the birth of the Third Reich: “Défense aérienne”, above note 59; Demolis, L., “Les manœuvres aériennes et la protection des populations civiles”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 17, No. 196, 1935Google Scholar. For Japan, see Demolis, L., “Exercices de protection de la population civile contre l'aérochimie effectués au Japon”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 10, No. 120, 1928Google Scholar. For Britain and France, see Demolis, L., “Les manœuvres aériennes et la défense des populations civiles”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 16, No. 188, 1934Google Scholar. For Norway, see “Exercices de protection aérienne en Norvège”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 14, No. 166, 1932Google Scholar.

68 Brown, Sidney H., “La protection de la population civile contre les dangers de la guerre aéro-chimique par des instruments diplomatiques”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 13, No. 153, 1931, p. 702Google Scholar.

69 Ibid., pp. 702–703.

70 “Commission internationale d'experts pour la protection des populations civiles contre la guerre chimique. IIe Session — Rome, 22–27 avril 1929. Résolutions”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 11, No. 125, 1929Google Scholar.

71 For the proceedings of this meeting, see “Commission internationale d'experts pour la protection juridique des populations civiles contre les dangers de la guerre aero-chimique. IIeme séance, mardi Ier decembre 1931”, ICRCA, CR159j.

72 S. H. Brown, above note 68.

73 “Résolutions et vœux adoptés par la XVe Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge Tokio, 20–29 octobre 1934”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 16, No. 191, 1934, p. 898Google Scholar.

74 “Projet l'appel a la conference de desarmament”, ICRCA, CR159j.

75 The WDC sought to reach major agreements on arms limitations, and while delegates from national governments agreed on the necessity of reducing arms, they failed to agree on the precise mechanisms for achieving this. The withdrawal of Nazi Germany from the conference, according to Zara Steiner, marked “the end of the inter-war movement to disarm”: see Steiner, Zara, The Lights that Failed: European International History, 1919–1933, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005, p. 796CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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82 “Records of the Nineteenth Ordinary Session of the Assembly”, p. 14, LNA, R424/30988/36395.

83 “Appel concernant la protection de la population civile contre les bombardements aériens”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 22, No. 256, 1940Google Scholar.

84 The most comprehensive account of the strategic bombing campaign during the Second World War is Overy, Richard, The Bombing War: Europe 1939–1945, Allen Lane, London, 2013Google Scholar. See also “Interview with Richard Overy”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 900, 2015Google Scholar.

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87 D. Palmieri, above note 14.

88 “Résolutions et vœux adoptés par la XVIe Conférence internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Londres 20–25 juin 1938”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 20, No. 235, 1938, p. 637Google Scholar.

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90 Ibid., pp. 283–286.

91 Ibid., p.273.

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94 Ibid., p. 469.

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96 J. Pictet, above note 89, p. 268.

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100 R. Heinsch, above note 95, p. 31.

101 D. Palmieri, above note 14, p. 994.

102 R. Heinsch, above note 95, p. 31.

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106 Haccius, Rodolphe, “L’œuvre de la Croix-Rouge espagnole au Maroc”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 8, No. 93, 1926, pp. 663–664Google Scholar. The following year, the Review published news of the commemorative postage stamps that the Spanish government issued to celebrate the Spanish Red Cross's contribution to the conflict, but again, it made no mention of civilian casualties during the war. See Wexel, Florian, “Timbres de Croix-Rouge”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 9, No. 97, 1927Google Scholar.

107 “Mission d'enquete en Anatolie (12–22 mai 1921)”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 3, No. 31, 1921, p. 723Google Scholar.

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110 Baudendistel, Rainer, “Force versus Law: The International Committee of the Red Cross and Chemical Warfare in the Italo-Ethiopian War 1935–1936”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 80, No. 829, 1998, pp. 103–104Google Scholar.

111 D. Palmieri, above note 14, pp. 995–996.

112 “Secours aux réfugiés grecs”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 4, No. 47, 1922, p. 956Google Scholar. See also a follow-up report on the sexual exploitation of these refugees, in “Traite des femmes et des enfants parmi les réfugiés d'Asie mineure”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 5, No. 54, 1923Google Scholar.

113 On contemporary IHL and sexual violence, see Gaggioli, Gloria, “Sexual violence in Armed Conflicts: A Violation of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 96, No. 894, 2014, pp. 511–513CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

114 On the “Red” and “White” atrocities committed during the Spanish Civil War, see Beevor, Antony, The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939, Phoenix, London, 2006Google Scholar.

115 On the ICRC's response to these two conflicts, see Forsyth, David, The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, pp. 39–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

116 For these appeals, see, for instance, “Conflit sino-japonais”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 20, No. 233, 1938, pp. 468–469Google Scholar.

117 D. Palmieri, above note 14, p. 995.

118 On the ICRC and the Holocaust, see Favez, Jean-Claude, The Red Cross and the Holocaust, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999Google Scholar.

119 “Réunion d'experts pour la protection juridique des populations civiles”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 36, No. 424, 1954Google Scholar. See also the extensive archival files on the ICRC's attempts to limit or ban nuclear weapons: ICRCA, BAG049-022.

120 Vincent Bernard, “Editorial: Science Cannot Be Placed Above Its Consequences”, Vol. 94, No. 886, 2012, p. 458.

121 Demolis, L., “Les armements modernes et la protection des populations civiles”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 21, No. 245, 1939, p. 403Google Scholar.

122 Klose, Fabian, “The Colonial Testing Ground: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Violent End of Empire”, Humanity, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2011CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

123 The introduction of the 1977 Additional Protocols helped refine some of these legal gaps in civilian protection in non-international armed conflicts.

124 Fassin, Didier, Humanitarian Reason: A Moral History of the Present, trans. Gomme, Rachel, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2012Google Scholar.

125 See, for instance, Wenger, A. and Mason, S. J. A., above note 3; Haidi Willmot and Scott Sheeran, “The Protection of Civilians Mandate in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Reconciling Protection Concepts and Practices”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 95, No. 891–892, 2013Google Scholar.

126 A. Wenger and S. J. A. Mason, above note 3.

127 For a summary of the debates about the role of principles of neutrality and the political role of humanitarianism, see Bridges, Kate M., “Between Aid and Politics: Diagnosing the Challenge of Humanitarian Advocacy in Politically Complex Environments – The Case of Darfur, Sudan”, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 8, 2010CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a close analysis of this debate, see also Gordon, Stuart and Donini, Antonio, “Romancing Principles and Human Rights: Are Humanitarian Principles Salvageable?”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897–898, 2016Google Scholar.

128 Lindsey, Charlotte, Women Facing War, ICRC, Geneva, 2001, pp. 36–37Google Scholar.

129 See, for example, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, World Disasters Report: Focus on Local Actors, the Key to Humanitarian Effectiveness, Geneva, 2015Google Scholar, available at: http://ifrc-media.org/interactive/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/1293600-World-Disasters-Report-2015_en.pdf.

130 McGoldrick, Claudia, “The State of Conflicts Today: Can Humanitarian Action Adapt?”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 900, 2015, pp. 1200–1206CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

131 On the agency of civilians in war zones, see A. Wenger and S. J. A. Mason, above note 3, pp. 841–846.

132 C. Lindsey, above note 128, pp. 212–213.

133 See, for example, “Life in a War-Torn City: Residents of Aleppo Tell Their Stories”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 98, No. 901, 2016Google Scholar.