Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-cphqk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-10T17:17:00.011Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Backlash against human rights shaming: emotions in groups

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2019

Jack Snyder Open the ORCID record for Jack Snyder [Opens in a new window]
Jack Snyder*
Affiliation:
Robert and Renée Belfer, Political Science Department, Columbia University, 1327 International Affairs Building, 420 W. 118 St., New York, NY, USA
*
Corresponding author. Email: jls6@columbia.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Human rights advocates continue to use shaming as a central tool despite recognizing its declining effectiveness. Shame is indeed a potent motivator, but its effects are often counterproductive for this purpose. Especially when wielded by cultural outsiders in ways that appear to condemn local social practices, shaming is likely to produce anger, resistance, backlash, and deviance from outgroup norms, or denial and evasion. Shaming can easily be interpreted as a show of contempt, which risks triggering fears for the autonomy and security of the group. In these circumstances, established religious and elite networks can employ traditional normative counter-narratives to recruit a popular base for resistance. If this counter-mobilization becomes entrenched in mass social movements, popular ideology, and enduring institutions, the unintended consequences of shaming may leave human rights advocates farther from their goal.

Keywords

human rightsshameshamingemotionstatusranking
Type
Original Papers
Information
International Theory , Volume 12 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 109 - 132
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press, 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acharya, Amitav. 2004. “How Ideas Spread: Whose Norms Matter? Norm Localization and Institutional Change in Asian Regionalism.” International Organization 58: 239–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adler, Alfred. 1956. The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. New York: Basic.Google Scholar
Adler-Nissen, Rebecca. 2014. “Stigma Management in IR: Transgressive Identities, Norms and Order in International Society.” International Organization 68: 143–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adler-Nissen, Rebecca. 2017. “Are We ‘Lazy Greeks’ or ‘Nazi Germans’?” In Hierarchies in World Politics, edited by Zarakol, Ayse, 198–218. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahmed, Eliza, Braithwaite, John, Harris, Nathan, and Braithwaite, Valerie. 2001. Shame Management through Reintegration. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Appiah, Kwame Anthony. 2010. The Honor Code. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Ausderan, Jacob. 2014. “How Naming and Shaming Affects Human Rights Perceptions in the Shamed Country.” Journal of Peace Research 51: 81–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, Michael. 2005. “Humanitarianism Transformed.” Perspectives on Politics 3: 723–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biddle, Stephen, Friedman, Jeffrey, and Shapiro, Jacob. 2012. “Testing the Surge: Why Did Violence Decline in Iraq in 2007?” International Security 37: 7–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boddy, Janice. 1982. “Womb as Oasis: The Symbolic Context of Pharaonic Circumcision in Rural Northern Sudan.” American Ethnologist 9: 682–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyle, Elizabeth Heger. 2002. Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, John. 1989. Crime, Shame, and Reintegration. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braithwaite, John, and Drahos, Peter. 2002. “Zero Tolerance, Naming and Shaming: Is there a Case for it with Crimes of the Powerful?” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 35: 269–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branscombe, Nyla R., and Bertjan, Doosje. eds. 2004. Collective Guilt. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, Marilyn. 2001. “Ingroup Identification and Intergroup Conflict.” In Social Identity, Intergroup Conflict, and Conflict Resolution, edited by Ashmore, Richard et al. , 17–41. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Brené. 2008. I Thought It Was Just Me. New York: Gotham.Google Scholar
Brysk, Alison. 2018. The Future of Human Rights. Cambridge, UK: Polity.Google Scholar
Chayes, Abram, and Chayes, Antonia Handler. 1993. “On Compliance.” International Organization 47: 175–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cingranelli, David, and Filippov, Mikhail. 2018. “Are Human Rights Practices Improving?” American Political Science Review 112: 1083–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Ann Marie. 2013. “The Normative Context of Human Rights Criticism: Treaty Ratification and UN Mechanisms.” In The Persistent Power of Human Rights, edited by Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen, and Sikkink, Kathryn, 125–44. New York: Cambridge University Press, chapter 7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Phil. 2010. The Gacaca Courts, Post-Genocide Justice and Reconciliation in Rwanda: Justice without Lawyers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloward, Karisa. 2016. When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooley, Alexander. 2015. “The Emerging Politics of International Rankings and Ratings: A Framework for Analysis.” In Ranking the World: Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance, edited by Cooley, and Snyder, Jack, 1–38. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooley, Alexander, and Schaaf, Matthew. 2017. “Grounding the Backlash: Regional Security Treaties, Counternorms, and Human Rights in Eurasia.” In Human Rights Futures, edited by Hopgood, Stephen, Snyder, Jack, and Vinjamuri, Leslie, 159–88. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooley, Charles H. 1902. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribner's.Google Scholar
Crawford, Neta. 2000. “The Passion of World Politics: Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships.” International Security 24: 116–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, Timothy W., and Kuperman, Alan J.. eds, 2006. Gambling on Humanitarian Intervention: Moral Hazard, Rebellion and Civil War. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dollar, David. 2015. “Institutional Quality and Growth Traps,” Pacific Trade and Development Working Paper Series, No. YF37-07, prepared for a conference at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, June 3–5.Google Scholar
Drumbl, Mark A. 2002. “Punishment, Postgenocide: From Guilt to Shame to Civis in Rwanda.” New York University Law Review 75: 1221–323.Google Scholar
Every, Danielle. 2013. “‘Shame on You’: The Language, Practice, and Consequences of Shame and Shaming in Asylum Seeker Advocacy.” Discourse and Society 24: 667–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fariss, Christopher J. 2014. “Respect for Human Rights has Improved Over Time: Modeling the Changing Standard of Accountability.” American Political Science Review 108: 297–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fariss, Christopher J. 2019. “Yes, Human Rights Practices Are Improving Over Time.” The American Political Science Review 113: 868–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finnemore, Martha, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52: 887–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franklin, James C. 2008. “Shame on You: The Impact of Human Rights Criticism on Political Repression in Latin America.” International Studies Quarterly 52: 187–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, Paul. 2003. “Evolution, Social Roles, and the Differences in Shame and Guilt.” Social Research 70: 1205–30.Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Greenwald, D. F., and Harder, D. W.. 1998. “Domains of Shame.” In Shame: Interpersonal Behavior, Psychopathology, and Culture, edited by Gilbert, Paul, 225–45. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gries, Peter Hays. 2004. China's New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, Diplomacy. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gruffydd-Jones, Jamie. 2019. “Citizens and Condemnation: Strategic Uses of International Human Rights Pressure in Authoritarian States.” Comparative Political Studies 52: 579–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414018784066.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie. 2008. “Sticks and Stones: The Efficacy of Human Rights ‘Naming and Shaming’.” International Organization 62: 689–716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Todd H. 2017. “On Provocation: Outrage, International Relations, and the Franco–Prussian War.” Security Studies 26: 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Nathan. 2017. “Shame in Regulatory Settings.” In Regulatory Theory, edited by Drahos, Peter. Acton, Australia: ANU Press.Google Scholar
Hernlund, Ylva. 2000. “Cutting without Ritual and Ritual without Cutting: Female ‘Circumcision’ and the Re-ritualization of Initiation in the Gambia.” In Female “Circumcision” in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change, edited by Shell-Duncan, Bettina and Hernlund, Ylva, 235–52. Boulder: Lynn Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Horney, Karen. 1950. Neurosis and Human Growth. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald L. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald L. 2001. The Deadly Ethnic Riot. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ingelaere, Bert. 2008. “The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda.” In Traditional Justice and Reconciliation after Violent Conflict, edited by Huyse, Luc and Salter, Mark, 25–60. Stockholm: International Idea.Google Scholar
Johnston, Alastair Iain. 2001. “Treating International Institutions as Social Environments.” International Studies Quarterly 45: 487–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Alastair Iain. 2008. Social States: China in International Institutions, 1980–2000. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keck, Margaret E., and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kelley, Judith G. 2017. Scorecard Diplomacy: Grading States to Influence Their Reputation and Behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, Judith G., and Simmons, Beth A.. 2015. “Indicators as Social Pressure in International Relations.” American Journal of Political Science 59: 55–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, Judith G., and Simmons, Beth A.. Forthcoming in 2020. “Introduction: The Power of Global Performance Indicators.” In The Power of Global Performance Indicators, edited by Kelley, and Simmons, , eds. Accessed as University of Pennsylvania Law: Legal Scholarship Repository, Faculty Scholarship at Penn Law, 1-17-2019.Google Scholar
Koliev, Faradj. 2018. “Selecting for Shame: The Monitoring of Workers’ Rights by the International Labour Organization, 1989 to 2011.” International Studies Quarterly 62: 437–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krain, Matthew. 2012. “J'accuse! Does Naming and Shaming Perpetrators Reduce the Severity of Genocides or Politicides?” International Studies Quarterly 56: 574–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kramer, Katherine J. 2016. The Politics of Resentment: Rural Consciousness in Wisconsin and the Rise of Scott Walker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larson, Deborah Welch, and Shevchenko, Alexei. 2019. Quest for Status: Chinese and Russian Foreign Policy. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Levitt, Peggy, and Merry, Sally Engle. 2009. “Vernacularization on the Ground: Local Uses of Global Women's Rights in Peru, China, India, and the United States.” Global Networks 9: 441–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Helen B. 1971. Shame and Guilt in Neurosis. New York: International Universities Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Lickel, Brian, Schmader, Toni, and Barquissau, Marchelle. 2004. “The Evolution of Moral Emotions in Intergroup Contexts: The Distinction Between Collective Guilt and Collective Shame.” In Collective Guilt, edited by Branscombe, Nyla R. and Doosje, Bertjan, 35–55. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lind, Jennifer. 2008. Sorry States: Apologies in International Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Lizardo, Omar, and Collett, Jessica L.. 2013. “Embarrassment and Social Organization: A Multiple Identities Model.” Social Forces 92: 353–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynch, Marc. 2011. “Explaining the Awakening: Engagement, Publicity, and the Transformation of Iraqi Sunni Political Attitudes.” Security Studies 20: 36–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackie, Gerry. 1996. “Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account.” American Sociological Review 61: 999–1017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mantilla, Giovanni. 2018. “Forum Isolation: Social Opprobrium and the International Law of Internal Conflict.” International Organization 72: 317–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markwica, Robin. 2018. Emotional Choices. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 2010. “Emotional Beliefs.” International Organization 64: 1–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 2014. “Feeling Like a State: Social Emotion and Identity.” International Theory 6(3): 515–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 2017. “The Illusion of International Prestige.” International Security 41: 133–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle, Davis, Kevin E., Kingsbury, Benedict, eds. 2015. The Quiet Power of Indicators: Measuring Governance, Corruption, and the Rule of Law. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, Benjamin. 2016. The Global Rise of Populism: Performance, Style, and Representation. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Mols, Frank, and Weber, Martin. 2013. “Laying Sound Foundations for Social Identity Theory-Inspired European Union Attitude Research: Beyond Attachment and Deeply Rooted Identities.” Journal of Common Market Studies 51: 505–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morse, Julia. 2016. “From Blacklists to Bankers: International Institutions and Market-Driven Compliance.” Dissertation, Princeton University.Google Scholar
Murdie, Amanda. 2014. Help or Harm? The Human Security Effects of NGOs. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Murdie, Amanda, and Davis, David R.. 2012. “Shaming and Blaming: Using Events Data to Assess the Impact of Human Rights INGOs.” International Studies Quarterly 56: 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neier, Aryeh. 2018. “‘Naming and shaming’: still the human rights movement's best weapon,” OpenGlobalRights, July 11, at https://www.openglobalrights.org/Naming-and-shaming-still-the-human-rights-movements-best-weapon/?lang=English.Google Scholar
Petersen, Roger. 2014. “Guilt, Shame, Balts, Jews.” In Confronting Memories of World War II, edited by Chirot, Daniel, 258–82. Seattle: University of Washington.Google Scholar
Press-Barnathan, Galia. 2018. “The Logic of Cultural Sanctions.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston.Google Scholar
Press-Barnathan, Galia. 2019. “The Logic of Cultural Sanctions.” Presentation at Columbia University, Saltzman Institute of War and Peace Studies, March 26.Google Scholar
Rajdurai, Henrieeta, and Igras, Susan. 2004. “At the Intersection of Health, Social Well-Being and Human Rights: CARE's Experience Working with Communities towards the Abandonment of Female Genital Cutting.” Atlanta: CARE.Google Scholar
Rejali, Darius. 2008. Torture and Democracy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Renshon, Jonathan. 2016. “Status Deficits and War.” International Organization 70(3): 513–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renshon, Jonathan. 2017. Fighting for Status. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Rensman, Lars. 2004. “Collective Guilt, National Identity, and Political Processes in Contemporary Germany.” In Collective Guilt, edited by Branscombe, Nyla R. and Doosje, Bertjan, 169–92. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen, and Sikkink, Kathryn. eds. 1999. The Power of Human Rights. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen, and Sikkink, Kathryn. eds. 2013. The Persistent Power of Human Rights. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodríguez-Garavito, César, and Gomez, Krizna. 2018. “Illiberal democracies and human rights: a new playbook.” OpenGlobalRights, June 28. https://www.openglobalrights.org/illiberal-democracies-and-human-rights-a-new-playbook/?lang=English.Google Scholar
Ruggie, John Gerard. 2013. Just Business: Multinational Corporations and Human Rights. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Sargsyan, Irena L., and Bennett, Andrew. 2016. “Discursive Emotional Appeals in Sustaining Violent Social Movements in Iraq, 2003–11.” Security Studies 25: 608–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheff, Thomas J. 2000. “Shame and the Social Bond.” Sociological Theory 18: 84–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheff, Thomas J., and Retzinger, Suzanne M.. 1991. Emotions and Violence: Shame and Rage in Destructive Conflicts. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Schweller, Randall, and Pu, Xiaoyu. 2011. “After Unipolarity: China's Visions of International Order in an Era of U.S. Decline.” International Security 36: 41–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, James C. 1985. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Shell-Duncan, Bettina, Naik, R., and Feldman-Jacobs, C.. 2016. A State-of-the-Art Synthesis on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: What Do We Know Now? New York: Population Council, at http://www.popcouncil.org/EvidencetoEndFGM-C.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shell-Duncan, Bettina, Wander, Katherine, Hernlund, Ylva, and Moreau, Amadou. 2013. “Legislating Change? Responses to Criminalizing Female Genital Cutting in Senegal.” Law & Society Review 47: 803–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherif, Muzafer, Harvey, O. J., White, B. Jack, Hood, William R., and Sherif, Carolyn W.. 1954. Experimental Study of Positive and Negative Intergroup Attitudes Between Experimentally Produced Groups: Robbers Cave Study. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma.Google Scholar
Sherif, Muzafer, Harvey, O. J., White, B. Jack, Hood, William R., and Sherif, Carolyn W.. 1961. Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman, OK: University Book Exchange.Google Scholar
Sikkink, Kathryn. 2011. The Justice Cascade. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Sikkink, Kathryn. 2017. Evidence for Hope: Making Human Rights Work in the 21st Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmons, Beth A. 2009. Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, Arlene. 2001. “Revenge of the Shamed: The Christian Right's Emotional Culture War.” In Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements, edited by Goodwin, Jeff, 115–34. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, Janice Gross. 2003. “Threat Perception in International Relations.” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, 2nd ed, edited by Huddy, Leonie, Sears, David O., and Levy, Jack S., 1–35. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Shogo. 2017. “‘Delinquent Gangs’ in International System Hierarchy.” In Hierarchies in World Politics, edited by Zarakol, Ayse, 219–40. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sznycer, Daniel, Tooby, John, Cosmides, Leda, Porat, Roni, Shalvi, Shaul, and Halperin, Eran. 2016. “Shame Closely Tracks the Threat of Devaluation by Others, Even Across Cultures.” PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences) 113(10): 2625–30; first published February 22, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514699113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tajfel, Henri. 1981. Human Groups and Social Categories. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, Billig, M., Bundy, R., and Flament, C.. 1971. “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour.” European Journal of Social Psychology 1: 149–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, and Turner, J. C.. 1979. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by Austin, W. G. and Worchel, S., 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar
Tangney, June P., and Dearing, Ronda L.. 2002. Shame and Guilt. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Tarrant, Mark, Branscombe, Nyla R., Warner, Ruth H., and Weston, Dale. 2012. “Social Identity and Perceptions of Torture: It's Moral When We Do It.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48: 513–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney. 1998. Power in Movement. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trenin, Dmitri. 2016. Should We Fear Russia? New York: Polity.Google Scholar
Turner, John C. 1987. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Turner, John C. 1991. Social Influence. Bristol, PA: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Turner, John C. 1999. “Social Identity Theory: Where Are We Now?” In Social Identity: Context, Commitment, Content, edited by Ellemers, Naomi, Spears, R., and Doosje, B.. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Turner, John C. 2004. “Foreword to the First Edition: What the Social Identity Approach is and Why it Matters.” In Psychology in Organizations: The Social Identity Approach, 2nd ed. (first ed., 2001), edited by Haslam, S. Alexander, xvii–xx. London: Sage.Google Scholar
United Nations. 2015. “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld.Google Scholar
Vinjamuri, Leslie. 2017. “Human Rights Backlash.” In Human Rights Futures, edited by Hopgood, Stephen, Snyder, Jack, and Vinjamuri, Leslie, 114–34. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wachman, Alan M. 2001. “Does the Diplomacy of Shame Promote Human Rights in China?” Third World Quarterly 22: 257–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wahl, Rachel. 2017. Just Violence: Torture and Human Rights in the Eyes of the Police. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wallis, Claudia. 2016. “Trump's Victory and the Politics of Resentment.” Scientific American, November 12, interview with Katherine Kramer.Google Scholar
Ward, Steven. 2017. Status and the Challenge of Rising Powers. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitten-Woodring, Jenifer. 2009. “Watchdog or Lapdog? Media Freedom, Regime Type, and Government Respect for Human Rights.” International Studies Quarterly 53: 595–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yarhi-Milo, Keren. 2018. Who Fights for Reputation? Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar