Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T07:38:04.124Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Who Has the Biggest Bulls? Royal Power and the Persepolis Apadāna

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Janett Morgan
Janett Morgan*
Affiliation:
Royal Holloway, University of London
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Relationships between power and architecture are a feature of all great civilizations and the Achaemenid world was no exception to this. The architecture of Achaemenid buildings and their relief sculpture was designed to reflect and reinforce the power and status of the Great King. At the heart of this visual program lay the audience hall (apadāna) at Persepolis. In seeking to explain and understand the messages written into this building, we tend to approach the structure as a completed work and view it from the last point in its lifecycle. As a result, we focus on its tribute procession relief and allow ideas of empire to dominate our gaze. This limits our ability to understand how and why the building’s intended audience and message of power might have diverged at different stages in its construction. This article re-examines the art and architecture of the audience hall at Persepolis and redirects the viewer’s gaze to the images of bulls rather than the tribute procession. In focusing on the role of bulls in the scheme of decoration, the article presents a more nuanced reading of the building in its historical, social and architectural context. It shows how Darius I used the Persepolis apadāna to display his authority to rule and to assert the primacy of his status amongst his fellow elites.

Type
Articles
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 50 , Issue 6: Visualizing Iran: From Antiquity to the Present , November 2017 , pp. 787 - 817
Copyright
Copyright © Association For Iranian Studies, Inc 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Dr. Yuka Kadoi, Dr. Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones and Dr. Nacim Pak-Shiraz for inviting me to speak at The Visual World of Persianate Culture, and thank the delegates at the conference for their helpful comments on my paper. I am also immensely grateful to Ranin Kazemi, Ali Gheissari and Marina Debattista for their support and encouragement and to my two anonymous reviewers for their apt and wise comments on the earlier drafts of this article.

References

Allen, L. “Le Roi Imaginaire: An Audience with the Achaemenid King.” In Imaginary Kings. Royal Images in the Ancient Near East, Greece and Rome, Oriens et Occidens XIII, edited by Hekster, O. and Fowler, R., 39–62. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag GmbH, 2005.Google Scholar
Bailey, D. W. Prehistoric Figurines: Representation and Corporeality in the Neolithic. London: Routledge, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bengtson, H. The Greeks and the Persians from the Sixth to the Fourth Centuries. London: Wiedenfeld & Nicholson, 1970.Google Scholar
Boardman, J. Persia and the West: An Archaeological Investigation of the Genesis of Achaemenid Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 2000.Google Scholar
Bosworth, C. E. “The Hon. George Nathaniel Curzon’s Travels in Russia, Central Asia and Persia”. Iran 31 (1993): 127–136. doi: 10.2307/4299895CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boucharlat, R. “Susa under Achaemenid Rule.” In Mesopotamia and Iran in the Persian Period. Conquest and Imperialism 539–331 BC, edited by Curtis, J., 54–67. London: British Museum Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Boucharlat, R. “The Palace and the Royal Achaemenid City: Two Case Studies—Pasargadae and Susa”. In The Royal Palace Institution in the First Millennium BC, edited by Neilsen, I., 113–22. Vol. 4. Aarhus: Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens, 2001.Google Scholar
Boyce, M. A History of Zoroastrianism, Volume I: The Early Period. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briant, P. “Le Nomadisme du Grand Roi” [The nomadism of the Great King]. Iranica Antiqua 23 (1988): 253–273. doi: 10.2143/IA.23.0.2014057CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briant, P. From Cyrus to Alexander. A History of the Persian Empire. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2002.Google Scholar
Brosius, M. “Keeping up with the Persians. Between Cultural Identity and Persianization in the Achaemenid Period”. In Cultural Identity in the Ancient Mediterranean, edited by Gruen, E. S., 135–149. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Research Institute, 2011.Google Scholar
Brunt, P. A. “The Hellenic League against Persia”. Historia 2, no. 2 (1953): 136–163.Google Scholar
Calmeyer, P. “Textual Sources for the Interpretation of Achaemenian Palace Decorations”. Iran 18 (1980): 55–63. doi: 10.2307/4299690CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chevalier, N. “The Discoverers of the Palace of Susa.” In The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Perrot, J., 53–73. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.Google Scholar
Childe, V. G. What Happened in History. London: Penguin, 1942.Google Scholar
Childe, V. G. Man Makes Himself. New York: New American Libraries, 1951.Google Scholar
Cribb, R. Nomads in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtis, J. Ancient Persia. London: British Museum Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Curtis, J. The Oxus Treasure. London: British Museum Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Curtis, J., and Razmjou, S.. “The Palace.” In Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia, edited by Curtis, J. and Tallis, N., 50–103. London; British Museum Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Curtis, J., and Tallis, N., eds. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. London; British Museum Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Curzon, G. N. Persia and the Persian Question, 2 vols. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1892.Google Scholar
Daucé, N. “The Ornamental Bricks.” In The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Perrot, J., 305–320. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.Google Scholar
Digard, J.-P., and Boyce, M.. “Cattle”. In Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. V. fasc. I, 79–84.Google Scholar
Downes, S. “Aesthetics of Empire in Athens and Persia.” PhD diss., University College London, 2011.Google Scholar
Drews, R. The Greek Accounts of Eastern History. Cambridge, MA: Washington Center of Hellenic Studies, 1973.Google Scholar
Dusinberre, E. R. M. Empire, Authority and Autonomy in Achaemenid Anatolia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennelly, J. M. “The Persepolis Ritual”. The Biblical Archaeologist 43, no. 3 (1980): 135–162. doi: 10.2307/3209721CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finn, J. “Gods, Kings, Men: Trilingual Inscriptions and Symbolic Visualizations in the Achaemenid Empire”. Ars Orientalis 41 (2011): 219–275.Google Scholar
Flandin, E., and Coste, P.. Voyages en Perse Vol. II [Travels in Persia]. Paris: Gide et J. Baudry, 1851.Google Scholar
Frankfort, H. “Achaemenian Sculpture”. American Journal of Archaeology 50 (1946): 6–14. doi: 10.2307/499744CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrison, M. B. “Achaemenid Iconography as Evidenced by Glyptic Art: Subject Matter, Social Function, Audience and Diffusion. Images as Media”. In Sources for the Cultural History of the Near East, edited by Uehlinger, C., 115–163. Freiburg: University Press Freiburg, 2000.Google Scholar
Garrison, M. B., and Root, M. C.. Seals on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Volume I: Images of Heroic Encounter. Chicago, IL: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2001.Google Scholar
Gell, A. Art and Agency: An Anthropological Theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Ghirshman, R. The Arts of Ancient Iran. New York: Golden Press, 1964.Google Scholar
Gopnik, H. “Why Columned Halls?” In The World of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Curtis, J. and Simpson, S., 195–206. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.Google Scholar
Hall, E. The Theatrical Cast of Athens. Interactions between Ancient Greek Drama and Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, E. “Aeschylus’ Persians via the Ottoman Empire to Saddam Hussein”. In Cultural Responses to the Persian Wars. Antiquity to the Third Millennium, edited by Bridges, E., Hall, E., and Rhodes, P. J., 167–200. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartner, W. “The Earliest History of the Constellations in the Near East and the Motif of the Lion-Bull Combat”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24, no. 1–2 (1965): 1–16. doi: 10.1086/371785CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helms, M. W. Craft and the Kingly Ideal: Art, Trade and Power. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henkelman, W. F. M. “Of Tapyroi and Tablets, States and Tribes: The Historical Geography of Pastoralism on the Achaemenid Heartland in Greek and Elamite Sources”. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 54, no. 2 (2011): 1–16. doi: 10.1111/j.2041-5370.2011.00020.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henkelman, W. F. M. “The Achaemenid Heartland: An Archaeological-Historical Perspective”. In A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, edited by Potts, D. T., 931–962. Oxford: Blackwell, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herzfeld, E. Iran in the Ancient Near East, New York: Oxford University Press, 1941.Google Scholar
Jones, S. “Discourses of Identity in the Interpretation of the Past”. In Interpretive Archaeology. A Reader, edited by Thomas, J., 445–457. London: Leicester University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Kent, R. G. Old Persian. Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. Vol. 33. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Series, 1950.Google Scholar
Kistler, E. “Großkönigliches symbolon im Osten—exotisches Luxusgut im Westen: zur Objektbiographie der achämenidischen Glasschale aus Ihringen” [Symbols of the Great King in the East—exotic luxury goods in the West: towards an object biography of the Achaemenid glass bowls from Ihringen]. In Interkulturalität in der Alten Welt. Vorderaisen, Hellas, Ägypten und die vielfältigen Ebenen Kontakts [Interculturalism in the ancient world. Western Asia, Greece, Egypt and the various levels of contact], edited by Rollinger, R., Gufler, B., Lang, M., and Madreiter, I., 63–95. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2010.Google Scholar
Knapp, A. B. ‘Architecture, Identity and Memory’. In Proceedings of the Symposium: Bronze Age Architectural Traditions in the East Mediterranean: Diffusion and Diversity (Gasteig, Munich, 7–8 May, 2008), edited by A. Kyriatsoulis, 47–59. Weilheim: Verein zur Förderung der Aufarbeitung der Hellenischen Geschichte e.V, 2009.Google Scholar
Kopsacheili, M. “Hybridisation of Palace Architecture: Hellenistic Royal Palaces and Governor’s Seats”. In From Pella to Gandhara. Hybridisation and Identity in the Art and Architecture of the Hellenistic East, edited by Kouremenos, A., Chandrasekaran, S., and Rossi, R., 17–34. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011.Google Scholar
Kuhrt, A. “The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550–330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations”. In Empires. Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Alcock, S. E., D’Altroy, T. N., Morrison, K. D., and Sinopoli, C. M. 93–123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Kuhrt, A. The Persian Empire. A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. London: Routledge, 2007.Google Scholar
Ladiray, D. “The Archaeological Results”. In The Palace of Darius at Susa. The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Perrot, J., 139–175. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.Google Scholar
Lecoq, P. Les Inscriptions de la Perse achéménide [The inscriptions of Achaemenid Persia]. Paris: Gallimard, 1997.Google Scholar
Lewis, D. M. “Persians in Herodotus”. In Selected Papers in Greek and Near Eastern History, edited by Rhodes, P. J., 345–361. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lincoln, B. “The Myth of the Bovine’s Lament”. Journal of Indo-European Studies 3 (1975): 337–362.Google Scholar
Liverani, M. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llewellyn-Jones, L. King and Court in Ancient Persia, 550–331 BCE. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Malandra, W. M. An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion. Readings from the Avesta and the Achaemenid Inscriptions. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Miller, M. C. Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Miller, M. C. “The Poetics of Emulation in the Achaemenid World: The Figured Bowls of the ‘Lydian Treasure’”. Ancient West and East 6 (2007): 43–73. doi: 10.2143/AWE.6.0.2022793CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, M. C. “‘Manners Maketh Man’: Diacritical Drinking in Achaemenid Anatolia”. In Cultural Identity in the Ancient Mediterranean, edited by Gruen, E. S., 97–134. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Research Institute, 2011.Google Scholar
Morgan, J. “At Home with Royalty: Constructing the Hellenistic Palace”. In The Hellenistic Court, edited by Erskine, A., Llewellyn-Jones, L., and Wallace, S.. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales, forthcoming 2017.Google Scholar
Morgan, J. Greek Perspectives on the Achaemenid Empire: Persia through the Looking-Glass. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Morris, I. “Archaeologies of Greece”. In Classical Greece: Ancient Histories and Modern Archaeologies, edited by Morris, I., 8–47. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Motamedmanesh, M. “Authenticity and Restoration: The Benefits of Historical Studies on Re-examining the Implemented Restorations in Persepolis”. Arts 5, no. 1 (2016): 1–19. doi: 10.3390/arts5010002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mousavi, A. “Persepolis in Retrospect: Histories of Discovery and Archaeological Exploration at the Ruins of Ancient Parseh”. Ars Orientalis 32 (2002): 209–251.Google Scholar
Mousavi, A. “Why Darius built Persepolis”. Archaeological Odyssey 8, no. 6 (Nov./Dec. 2005): 22–35.Google Scholar
Mousavi, A. Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder. Boston, MA: de Gruyter, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagel, A. “Colors, Gilding and Painted Motifs at Persepolis: Approaching the Polychromy of Achaemenid Persian Architectural Sculpture, c. 520–330 BCE.” PhD. diss, University of Michigan, 2010.Google Scholar
Neilsen, I. Hellenistic Palaces. Tradition and Renewal. Aarhus: Studies in Hellenistic Civilisation V, 1999.Google Scholar
Nimchuk, C. L. “Empire Encapsulated: The Persepolis Apadāna Foundation Deposits”. In The World of Ancient Persia. History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East, edited by Curtis, J. and Simpson, St. J., 221–229. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.Google Scholar
Nylander, C. Ionians in Pasargadae. Studies in Old Persian Architecture. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis Boreas 1, 1970.Google Scholar
Nylander, C. “Al-Biruni and Persepolis”. Acta Iranica 1 (1974): 137–150.Google Scholar
Olbyricht, M. J. “Parthia and Nomads of Central Asia. Elements of Steppe Origin in the Social and Military Developments of Arsacid Iran”. In Militär und Staatlichkeit, Mitteilungen des SFB “Differenz und Integration” 5 [Military and statehood, Publications of the SFB “Difference and integration” 5], edited by Schneider, I., 69–109. Halle/Saale: Universität Leipzig and Halle-Wittenberg, 2003.Google Scholar
Olmstead, A. T. History of the Persian Empire: Achaemenid Period. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1948.Google Scholar
Özgen, I., and Öztürk, J.. The Lydian Treasure: Heritage Recovered. Istanbul: Uğur Okman, 1996.Google Scholar
Paspalas, S. A. “On Persian-Type Furniture in Macedonia: The Recognition and Transmission of Forms”. American Journal of Archaeology 104 (2000): 531–560. doi: 10.2307/507228CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perrot, J. “How the Statue of Darius Broke”. In The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Perrot, J., 176–180. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perrot, J. “Restoration, Reconstruction”. In The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Perrot, J., 208–239. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perrot, J. “Darius in his Time”. In The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Perrot, J., 453–465. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perrot, J., and Canal, D.. “The Apadāna Foundations”. In The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Perrot, J., 181–188. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, A. U. “Persepolis as a Ritual City”. Archaeology 10 (1957): 123–130.Google Scholar
Rapoport, A. The Meaning of the Built Environment: A Non-Verbal Communication Approach. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1982.Google Scholar
Razmjou, S. “Religion and Burial Customs”. In Forgotten Empire: The World of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Curtis, J. and Tallis, N., 150–156. London: British Museum Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Razmjou, S. “Persepolis: A Reinterpretation of Palaces and their Function”. In The World of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Curtis, J. and Simpson, S., 231–245. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.Google Scholar
Roaf, M. “Sculptures and Sculptors at Persepolis”. Iran 21 (1983): 1–164. doi: 10.2307/4299731CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roaf, M. “Media and Mesopotamia: History and Architecture”. In Later Mesopotamia and Iran: Tribes and Empires 1600–539 BC. Proceedings of a Seminar in Memory of Vladimir G. Lukonin, edited by Curtis, J. 54–66. London: British Museum Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Rolle, R. “The Scythians: Between Mobility, Tomb Architecture and Early Urban Structures”. In The Barbarians of Ancient Europe. Realities and Interactions, edited by Bonfante, L., 107–131. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Rollinger, R. “The Eastern Mediterranean and Beyond: Relations between the Worlds of the ‘Greek’ and ‘Non-Greek’ Civilizations”. In A Companion to the Classical Greek World, edited by Kinzl, K. H., 197–226. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.Google Scholar
Root, M. C. The King and Kingship in Achaemenid Art. Essays on the Creation of an Iconography of Empire. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1979.Google Scholar
Root, M. C. “Circles of Artistic Programming: Strategies for Studying Creative Process at Persepolis,” In Investigating Artistic Environments in the Ancient Near East, edited by Gunter, A. C., 115–139. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Root, M. C. “From the Heart: Powerful Persianisms in the Art of the Western Empire”. In Asia Minor and Egypt: Old Cultures in a New Empire. Proceedings of the Groningen 1988 Achaemenid History Workshop, Achaemenid History VI, edited by Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. and Kuhrt, A. 1–29. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1991.Google Scholar
Root, M. C. “Lifting the Veil. Artistic Transmission Beyond the Bounds of Historical Periodisation”. In Continuity and Change. Proceedings of the Last Achaemenid History Workshop April 6–8, 1990, Achaemenid History VIII, edited by Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. Kuhrt, A. and Root, M. C. 9–37. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1994.Google Scholar
Root, M. C. “Imperial Ideology in Achaemenid Art: Transforming the Mesopotamian Legacy”. Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 35 (2000): 19–27.Google Scholar
Root, M. C. “Animals in the Art of Ancient Iran”. In A History of the Animal World in the Ancient Near East, edited by Collins, B. J., 169–209. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002.Google Scholar
Root, M. C. “Reading Persepolis in Greek: Gifts of the Yauna”. in Persian Responses. Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire, edited by Tuplin, C., 177–224. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Root, M. C. “Reading Persepolis in Greek—Part Two: Marriage Metaphors and Unmanly Virtues”. In Ancient Greece and Ancient Iran. Cross Cultural Encounters. First International Conference, Athens, 11–13 Nov 2006, edited by Darbandi, S. M. R. and Zournatzi, A., 195–221. Athens: National Hellenic Research Foundation, 2008.Google Scholar
Said, E. W. Orientalism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978.Google Scholar
Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. “Through Travelers’ Eyes: The Persian Monuments as Seen by European Visitors”. In Through Travelers Eye’s. European Travelers on the Iranian Monuments, Achaemenid History VII, edited by Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. and Drijvers, J. W., 173–205. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1991.Google Scholar
Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H., and Kuhrt, A.. “Introduction”. In Achaemenid History, Vol. II. The Greek Sources, edited by Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. and Kuhrt, A., ix–xiii. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1987.Google Scholar
Schmandt-Besserat, D. Ancient Persia. The Art of an Empire. Austin: University of Texas, 1978.Google Scholar
Schmidt, E. F. Persepolis I. Structures, Reliefs, Inscriptions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications 68, 1953.Google Scholar
Schmitt, R., and Stronach, D.. “Apadāna”. In Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. II. fasc. II, 145–148.Google Scholar
Shanks, M. Classical Archaeology of Greece: Experiences of the Discipline. London: Routledge, 1996.Google Scholar
Simpson, St. J. “The Royal Table”. In Forgotten Empire: The World of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Curtis, J. and Tallis, N., 104–131. London: British Museum Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Starr, C. G. “Greeks and Persians in the Fourth Century BC. Part II”. Iranica Antique 12 (1977): 49–115.Google Scholar
Stolper, M. W. “Achaemenid Languages and Inscriptions”. In Forgotten Empire: The World of Achaemenid Persia, edited by Curtis, J. and Tallis, N., 18–24. London: British Museum Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Stolper, M. W. “The Form, Language and Contents of the Cyrus Cylinder”. In Cyrus the Great. An Ancient Iranian King, edited by Daryaee, T., 40–52. Santa Monica, CA: Afshar Publishing, 2013.Google Scholar
Stronach, D. B. “Excavations at Pasargadae: First Preliminary Report.” Iran 1 (1963): 19–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stronach, D. B. “Excavations at Pasargadae: Second Preliminary Report.” Iran 2 (1964): 21–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stronach, D. B. “Excavations at Pasargadae: Third Preliminary Report.” Iran 3 (1965): 9–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stronach, D. B. Pasargadae: A Report on the Excavations Conducted by the British Institute of Persian Studies from 1961 to 1963. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978.Google Scholar
Stronach, D. B. “Pasargadae”. In The Cambridge Ancient History of Iran, Vol. II the Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Gershevitch, I., 838–855. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Stronach, D. B. “Anshan and Parsa: Early Achaemenid History, Art and Architecture on the Iranian Plateau”. In Mesopotamia and Iran in the Persian Period. Conquest and Imperialism 539–331 BC, edited by Curtis, J., 35–53. London: British Museum Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Stronach, D. B. “From Cyrus to Darius: Notes on Art and Architecture in Early Achaemenid Palaces”. In The Royal Palace Institution in the First Millennium BC, edited by Neilsen, I., 95–111. 4. Aarhus: Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens, 2001.Google Scholar
Stronach, D. B. “Cyrus and Pasargadae”. In Cyrus the Great. An Ancient Iranian King, edited by Daryaee, T., 53–77. Santa Monica, CA: Afshar Publishing, 2013.Google Scholar
Summers, D. Real Spaces. World Art History and the Rise of Western Modernism. London: Phaidon, 2003.Google Scholar
Talebian, M. H. “Persia and Greece. The Role of Cultural Interactions in the Architecture of Persepolis-Pasargadae”. In Ancient Greece and Ancient Iran. Cross Cultural Encounters. First International Conference. Athens, 11–13 Nov 2006, edited by Darbandi, S. M. R. and Zournatzi, A., 175–179. Athens: National Hellenic Research Foundation, 2008.Google Scholar
Tilia, A. B. Studies and Restorations at Persepolis and Other Sites of Fãrs, Vol. I. Rome: IsMEO Reports and Memoirs XVI, 1972.Google Scholar
Tourovetz, A. “The Palace Architecture of the Achaemenids under Scrutiny: An Approach to the Problem of Origin”. In Excavating an Empire. Achaemenid Persia in Longue Durée, edited by Daryaee, T., Mousavi, A., and Rezakhani, K., 146–162. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers Inc., 2014.Google Scholar
Trigger, B. G. “Monumental Architecture: A Thermodynamic Explanation of Symbolic Behavior”. World Archaeology 22, no. 2 (1990): 119–132. doi: 10.1080/00438243.1990.9980135CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trigger, B. G. Early Civilizations. Ancient Egypt in Context. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Van de Mieroop, M. A History of the Ancient Near East. 2nd. ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.Google Scholar
Van Steen, G. “Enacting History and Patriotic Myth: Aeschylus’ Persians on the Eve of the Greek War of Independence”. In Cultural Responses to the Persian Wars. Antiquity to the Third Millennium, edited by Bridges, E., Hall, E., and Rhodes, P. J., 299–329. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vlassopoulos, K. Unthinking the Greek Polis. Ancient History beyond Eurocentrism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, M. W. Ancient Persia. A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 530–330BCE. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Waters, M. W. “Darius the First the Ninth King”. In Excavating an Empire. Achaemenid Persia in Longue Durée, edited by Daryaee, T., Mousavi, A., and Rezakhani, K., 63–70. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2014.Google Scholar
Wheeler, M. Flames over Persepolis. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1968.Google Scholar
Wiesehöfer, J. Ancient Persia from 550BC to 650AD, translated by Azodi, A.. London: I. B. Tauris, 1996.Google Scholar
Wilber, D.N. Persepolis. 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Winter, I. J. “‘Seat of Kingship’/‘A Wonder to Behold’: The Palace as Construct in the Ancient Near East”. Ars Orientalis 23 (1993): 27–55.Google Scholar
Young, T. C. Jr. “Architectural Developments in Iron Age Western Iran”. Bulletin of the Canadian Society of Mesopotamian Studies 27 (1994): 25–32.Google Scholar
Zarins, J. “Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia”. Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research 280 (1990): 31–65. doi: 10.2307/1357309CrossRefGoogle Scholar