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MASS PRODUCTION OR PRODUCTION BY THE MASSES? TRACTORS, COOPERATIVES, AND THE POLITICS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN POST-INDEPENDENCE ZAMBIA*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 August 2011

ANDREW BOWMAN
ANDREW BOWMAN*
Affiliation:
University of Manchester
*
Author's email: andrew.bowman5@gmail.com
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Abstract

The fall of colonial regimes across Africa was accompanied by the rise in expectations for rapid and inclusive rural economic progress. In Zambia, the cooperative production unit was one of two key initiatives at the centre of the United National Independence Party's ambitious development efforts. The other was the tractor. By following these two interlinked initiatives in the years immediately following independence, this article contributes to the under-explored history of early postcolonial development. It argues that both the power of expert groups and the level of continuity between late colonial and postcolonial development was not always as great as has recently been suggested. Cooperative mechanization policies emerged from a confluence of competing claims over knowledge, power and resources. However, as is demonstrated, they also reflected more fundamental tensions in the development endeavour between the prioritization of economically efficient mass production, and inclusive development for the masses.

Keywords

Zambiapostcolonialpoliticsagriculturedevelopmenttechnology
Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 52 , Issue 2 , July 2011 , pp. 201 - 221
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

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Footnotes

*

I would like to thank Lyn Schumaker, Jon Harwood, and Giacoma Macola for their advice during the drafting of this article.

References

1 See F. Cooper, Africa Since 1940: The Past of the Present (Cambridge, 2002); and D. Nugent, Africa Since Independence: A Comparative History (London, 2004), 57. For Zambia, see J. Ferguson, Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life on the Zambian Copperbelt (Berkeley, 1999); and Macola, G., ‘It means as if we are excluded from the good freedom: thwarted expectations of independence in the Luapula Province of Zambia, 1964–6’, Journal of African History, 47 (2006), 43–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 G. Chapman, ‘Ordinary man the only one who can make plan work’, Times of Zambia, 15 Oct. 1965.

3 ‘Big new drive to find jobs for all: Kaunda tells 35,000 of his plans’, Northern News, 18 Jan. 1965.

4 25 per cent of Zambia's population was urban, compared to 4 per cent in Tanzania and 7 per cent in Kenya, British Library, United National Independence Party Records, (UNIP), 1/1/7, ‘Urban Community Development’, 20 May 1965. The destabilizing effects of a jobless urban population had been a concern through Africa for decades, see F. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labour Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge, 1996).

5 National Archives of Zambia (NAZ) Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/4, F11A, ‘Cooperatives Circular’, 29 Oct. 1965.

6 R. Bates, Rural Responses to Industrialization: A Study of Village Zambia (New Haven, 1976), 114–16.

7 ‘Increased self-sufficiency is Government Aim’, Northern News, 14 Jan. 1965.

8 NAZ, Loc. 100, Mag. 1/19/14, F89, ‘Grain Policies’, 6 Feb. 1965.

9 ‘Self-sufficiency’, Northern News.

10 K. Kaunda, Zambia Shall be Free (London, 1966), 30; K. Kaunda, Humanism in Zambia and a Guide to its Implementation (Lusaka, 1967).

11 In this case, Bates, Rural; M. Bratton, The Local Politics of Rural Development: Peasant and Party-State in Zambia (Hanover, 1980); S. Lombard, The Growth of Cooperatives in Zambia, 1914–1971 (New York, 1971); and Quick, S. A., ‘Humanism or technocracy? Zambia's farming cooperatives, 1965–1972’, Zambian Papers, 12 (1978).Google Scholar

12 A motivation for J. B. Gewald, M. Hinfelaar and G. Macola, One Zambia, Many Histories: Towards a History of Post-colonial Zambia (Leiden, 2008).

13 The most notable contributions are M. Vaughan, ‘Exploitation and neglect: rural producers and the state in Malawi and Zambia’, in D. Birmingham and P. M. Martin (eds.), History of Central Africa (Harlow, 1998); and H. Moore and M. Vaughan, Cutting Down Trees: Gender, Nutrition, and Agricultural Change in the Northern Province of Zambia, 1890–1990 (Oxford, 1994). On the ambiguity of the post-independence period see Cooper, F., ‘Possibility and constraint: African independence in historical perspective’, Journal of African History, 49 (2008), 179CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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22 NAZ, Loc. 99, Mag. 1/19/5, F1, ‘UK technical assistance’, Mar. 1961; NAZ, Loc. 100, Mag. 1/19/12, ‘Assistance from external agencies’, 1964–66, and NAZ, Loc. 100, Mag. 1/19/10, ‘US assistance to Zambia’.

23 See A. Staples, The Birth of Development: How the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organisation and World Health Organisation Changed the World, 1945–1965 (Kent, 2006), chapters 5–7; and NAZ, Loc. 99, Mag. 1/19/6, F767, ‘FAO development planning’, 1 Feb. 1963.

24 NAZ, Loc. 99, Mag. 1/19/9, F896, ‘FAO Conference’, 18 Nov. 1963.

25 NAZ, Loc. 100, Mag. 1/19/14, F49, ‘FAO Conference’, 3–15 Sept. 1964, and F83/1. ‘UN/ECA: Agricultural situation in Africa’, 5 Jan. 1965.

26 NAZ, Loc. 99, Mag. 1/19/8, F865A, ‘World Food Congress’, 4–18 June 1963, and NAZ, Loc. 226, Mag. 2/21/70, ‘Letter to Ministers of Agriculture’, Aug. 1965.

27 NAZ, Loc. 100, Mag. 1/19/14, F49, ‘FAO African Regional Conference’, Sept. 1964.

28 NAZ, Loc. 99, Mag. 1/19/5, F125, ‘Recruitment drive’, 23 Mar. 1966.

29 NAZ, Loc. 86, Mag. 1/13/16, F5. ‘ECA/FAO Survey Mission’, 5 Dec. 1963. Seers gained notoriety for attacks on the universalising tendencies of economists, see Seers, D. ‘The limitations of the special case’, Bulletin of the Oxford Institute of Economics and Statistics, 25:2 (1963), 77–98Google Scholar.

30 UNECA/FAO, Report of the Economic Survey Mission on the Development of Zambia (Seers Report), (Ndola, 1964). The term is taken from A. F. Robertson, People and the State: An Anthropology of Planned Development (Cambridge, 1983), 44.

31 UNECA/FAO, Zambia, 7.

32 Ibid. Zambia, 24–56. See also G. Macola, ‘Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula, UNIP and the roots of authoritarianism in nationalist Zambia’, in Gewald, One Zambia, Many Histories.

33 UNECA/FAO, Zambia, 10–16 and 67–8.

34 Ibid. 19–22, and 68–71.

35 Ibid. 54–56.

36 P. Burch, Overseas Aid and Transfer of Technology: The Political Economy of Agricultural Mechanization in the Third World (Harts, 1987).

37 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F70. ‘FAO/ECA mechanization proposals’, undated.

38 NAZ, Loc. 184, Mag. 2/16/14, ‘Research Branch, Chombwa Scheme’, undated, c.1961–2.

39 NAZ, Loc. 184, Mag. 2/16/14, ‘Chombwa scheme – Official Report’, undated, 1961–2.

40 NAZ, Loc. 184, Mag. 2/16/14,‘Chombwa terms of reference’, undated.

41 NAZ, Loc. 184, Mag. 2/16/14, ‘Chombwa pilot’, 26 June 1964.

42 NAZ, Loc. 184, Mag. 2/16/14, ‘Chombwa working party’, 14 Aug. 1964.

43 K. Marx, Capital Volume 1 (London, 1990), 531–2.

44 NAZ, Loc. 86, Mag. 1/13/16, F3. ‘FAO/ECA mechanization of agriculture’, 8 Oct. 1963.

45 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F133. ‘Planning Memorandum no. 12’, 1965.

46 Official Verbatim Reports of the Debates of the First National Assembly of Zambia (Hansard), 30 March 1966, 818, Z. A. Banda, Chadiza.

47 Hansard, 15 Jan. 1965, 225–6, Mr Kapika, Serenje.

48 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/18/12, F76. ‘Press release: mechanization scheme’, 7 Sept. 1965.

49 Hansard, 30 Mar. 1966, 818, Z. A. Banda, Chadiza.

50 NAZ, Loc. 100, Mag. 1/19/11, ‘Agricultural economists’, Aug. 1963; Robertson, Development, 26.

51 Ibid; R. Chambers, Settlement Schemes in Tropical Africa: A Study of Organizations and Development (London, 1969), 30–9.

52 UNECA/FAO, Zambia, 24.

53 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/1. F131, ‘Colonial Office despatch’, 18 Sept. 1955.

54 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/4, F.11A, ‘Cooperative circular’, 29 Oct. 1965.

55 Hansard, 31 Mar. 1966, 921–5, Mr Mbilishi, Balovale, and 23 July 1965, 287–8, N. S. Mulenga, Chingola.

56 NAZ, Loc. 69, Mag1/8/23, F3, ‘Back to the land policy’, 2 May 1967. On Kaunda's fears concerning urbanization see K. Kaunda, A Humanist in Africa (London, 1966), 57. For a comparison with Tanzania, see Burton, A., ‘The haven of peace purged: tackling the undesirable and unproductive poor in Dar es Salaam, ca. 1950s–1980s’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 40: 1 (2007), 119–51Google Scholar.

57 NAZ, Loc. 86, Mag. 1/13/16, F3, ‘Transition from subsistence agriculture’, Apr. 1964.

58 NAZ, Loc. 86, Mag. 1/13/16, ‘ECA Coordination Mission’, 1964.

59 NAZ, Loc. 99, Mag. 1/19/6, F666/2, ‘Agricultural credit for Africa, ECA/FAO’, May 1962, and UNECA/FAO, Zambia, 64.

60 NAZ. Loc. 58, Mag. 1/5/13, F1. ‘Provincial Evaluation Committee, new cooperatives’, 24 Sept. 1965.

61 ‘Farmers call for “rational approach”’, Times of Zambia, 8 Dec. 1966.

62 For a broader discussion of this theme, see F. Cooper, ‘Possibility’.

63 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F84, ‘Meeting record, Hutchenson's office’, 23 Nov. 1964, and NAZ, Loc. 86, Mag. 1/13/16, F31, ‘Comment on ECA/FAO report, SM Makings’, May 1964.

64 Ibid.

65 Ibid.

66 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F84, ‘Meeting record, Hutchenson's Office’, 23 Nov. 1964.

67 Ibid; NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F198. PS, MOA to PS Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 9 Feb. 1965, and NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/18, F48/a, Zeman to Heseltine, 7 Nov. 1966.

68 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F12. James Watkinson Ltd. to Kaunda, 9 Nov. 1964.

69 ‘Tractor firm confident of Zambia's expansion’, Northern News, 5 Jan. 1965.

70 On Zambia's opportunistic non-alignment, see DeRoche, A., ‘Non-alignment on the racial frontier: Zambia and the USA, 1964–68’, Cold War History, 7:2 (2007), 227–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

71 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F54. Greening to Mechanical Services, 6 Dec. 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 68, Mag. 1/8/18, F48, Zulu to Mudenda, 9 Nov. 1966.

72 R. Klepper, ‘The determinants of agricultural research priorities in Zambia’, 1980, Zambia Agricultural Research Institute Central Library (ZARI), box 631.02, and NAZ, Loc. 167. Mag. 2/8/22, F4, ‘Research Policy’, 15 Aug. 1967.

73 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/18/12, F7/1, ‘Mechanical engineering’, 23 April 1965; Hansard, 4 Aug. 1965, 502, E. H. K. Mudenda.

74 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F45, ‘1963 survey of tractors’.

75 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/2, F15/1, ‘Cabinet: Maize price policy’, undated; Hansard, 6 Apr. 1966, 1166, E. H. K. Mudenda.

76 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/18/12, F77, ‘Minute by the President: tractors’, 30 Aug. 1965.

77 NAZ, Loc. 68, Mag. 1/8/18, F82, ‘Mechanization evaluation’, June 1965—June 1966.

78 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/18/12, F36, Mackay, PAO, NWP, to Deputy Director of Agriculture, 25 Feb. 1965.

79 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/18/12, F111, PCO, Northern Province to Mwamba, 1 Sep. 1965. Development workers had long pressed Northern Province inhabitants into abandoning citemene, see Moore and Vaughan, Cutting Down Trees.

80 NAZ, Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/13, F23, ‘Problems facing agricultural cooperatives’, 21 Mar. 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 59, Mag. 1/5/26, ‘Technical Planning Committee’, 3 and 24 Nov. 1966.

81 NAZ, Loc. 68, Mag. 1/8/18, F48, Zulu to Mudenda, 9 Nov. 1966, and F54, Greening to Mechanical Services, 6 Dec. 1966.

82 NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F41, Greening to PS, MMC, June 1966.

83 NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F146. Zulu to Mudenda, 9 Nov. 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 77, Mag. 1/10/13, F13, ‘FNDP Implementation’, Dec. 1966.

84 NAZ, Loc. 77, Mag. 1/10/14, F65/1, ‘FNDP Progress Report’, Mar. 1967.

85 Hansard, 11 Mar. 1966, 274–85, C. Mporokoso.

86 Hansard, 31 Mar. 1966, 924. Mr Mbilishi, Balovale, and 4 May 1965, 510–14, J. J. Burnside, Zambezi. Historically, colonizers' understandings of racial and technological superiority have gone hand in hand, see M. Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Cornell, 1990).

87 NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/10, F57, ‘Memo, S. M. Chisembele’, 12 Mar. 1968.

88 NAZ, Loc. 77, Mag. 1/10/13, F1, ‘Implementation of the FNDP’, 9 Nov. 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F100, Mudenda to Zulu, 26 Sept. 1966.

89 NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F178. ‘Czechoslovakian tractors’, 9 Dec. 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/13, F16. PS, MMC to Ministry of Finance, 16 Apr. 1966.

90 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/18/12, F142, ‘Memo, EHK Mudenda’, 29 Nov. 1965; NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F159, ‘Issue of tractors, Mwamba’, 21 Nov. 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6 F200, Brasted to Nalumango, 18 Nov. 1966.

91 Most influentially articulated by A. Escobar, Encountering Development: The making and unmaking of the Third World (Princeton, 1995), 102–53. See also P. de Senarclens, ‘How the United Nations promotes development through technical assistance’, in M. Rahnema and V. Bawtree (eds.), The Post-Development Reader (London, 1997), 190–201.

92 Harvey, C., ‘The control of credit in Zambia’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 11:3 (1973), 383–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

93 NAZ, Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/13, F65, ‘Mechanization circular no. 1’, 1966, and F53A, ‘Stumping grants’, 30 July 1966.

94 Ibid; NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F127, ‘Tractors for agricultural cooperatives’, 12 Sept. 1966.

95 NAZ, Loc. 106. Mag. 1/21/12, F12. Nyalugwe to all PCOs, 4 Aug. 1967.

96 NAZ, Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/13, F94, F98, ‘Development of cooperatives’, undated.

97 G. Macola, Liberal Nationalism in Central Africa: A Biography of Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula (London, 2010), 107.

98 Hansard, 13 July 1967, 987–8, E. H. K. Mudenda; NAZ, COZ1, Loc. 108, Mag. 1/22/6, F51, ‘COZ Report’, 1 July to 31 Oct. 1964, and F126, ‘Cabinet Credit Committee’, 23 Apr. 1965.

99 NAZ, Loc. 108, Mag. 1/22/6, F176, ‘COZ memo’, undated.

100 Ibid.

101 NAZ, Loc. 108, Mag. 1/22/6, F138, ‘COZ Working Party’, undated; F158, ‘Cabinet Credit Committee’, 22 June 1965, and F160, ‘COZ memo’, 24 June 1965.

102 NAZ, Loc. 8, Mag. 1/22/12, F7, Mwila, COZ manager to Regional manager, 22 June 1966, and F22/1, ‘Efficiency assessment’, undated.

103 NAZ, Loc. 108, Mag. 1/22/9, F2, Kulombota to Mudenda, 2 July 1965.

104 NAZ, Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/13, F23, ‘Problems facing agricultural coops’, 21 Mar. 1966; F81, Chitambala to Zulu, 15 Nov. 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 68, Mag. 1/8/18, F40/1, Greening to Land and Agricultural Bank, 15 Oct. 1966.

105 NAZ, Loc. 108, Mag. 1/22/9, F5. ‘COZ: Repayment Capacity’; Loc. 58, Mag. 1/5/15, and F25/a, ‘Cooperative agricultural loans committee’, 12-13 July 1966.

106 Hansard, 11 July 1967, 864–71.

107 £133,125 in land clearance subsidy compared to £21,250 in Southern Province, NAZ, Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/13, F74b, ‘Seasonal Loans, Mwamba’, 20 Oct. 1966. Luapula initially received 60 tractors as opposed to 12 in Southern Province. NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/2, F62, ‘ACMS circular’, 18 Jan. 1968. See also NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/9, F2, ‘Facts and figures, cooperative societies’, 31 Dec. 1967.

108 Hansard, 13 Jan. 1965, 68–9, M. M. Sakubita.

109 NAZ, Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/13, F148, Zulu to Cheelo, 21 July 1967, and NAZ, Loc. 68, Mag. 1/8/18, F82, ‘Mechanization scheme evaluation’, June 1965–June 1966.

110 See Macola, Nationalism, and Hansard, 29 Mar. 1966, 812, A. S. Kaunda, 6 Apr. 1966, 1200–1205, Zulu; 1214, N. Tembo, Ndola East; 6 July 1967, 747, Sikasulu, Abercorn; 11 July 1967. See also Hansard, 4 May 1965, 486–90, H. K. M. Mudenda.

111 Hansard, 6 Aug. 1965, 640–2, E. V. Musangu, Choma; 10 Aug. 1965, 724–5, Mr L. B. Hantuba, Kalomo District, and 15–23 Mar. 1966.

112 In particular the under secretary for Luapula, A. S. Kaunda, see Hansard 22 Jan. 1965, 512–13, and 5 Aug. 1965, 531–2.

113 Hansard, 29 Mar. 1966, 810–12, A. S. Kaunda; 11 July 1967, 863, N. Tembo, Ndola East.

114 Hansard, 10 August 1965, 708, A. Chikatula, Chisamba, see also UNIP 1/1/10, ‘Notes on the political situation in Central Province’, 13 Nov. 1968.

115 A point made clear by internal dialogue. UNIP 1/1/8, ‘National Council Minutes 1964–7’.

116 In for example Bates, Urban.

117 NAZ, Loc. 6875, CO3/1/177, F3, Muchangwe to PS, MMC, 2 June 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 6875, CO3/1/177, F9, Muchangwe to Cabinet Secretary, 11 Oct. 1966.

118 NAZ, Loc. 68, Mag. 1/8/18, F82, ‘Mechanization Scheme Evaluation’, June 1965–June 1966; NAZ, Loc. 77, Mag. 1/10/14, F65/1. F65/1, ‘FNDP progress report’, July 1966–Mar 1967, and NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/2, F32, ‘Mechanization circular no. 18’, 1967.

119 NAZ, Loc. 68, Mag. 1/8/18, F82, ‘Pilot Tractor Mechanization Scheme: Evaluation of First Year's Operations’, 1965–66.

120 UNIP 1/1/6, ‘Minutes of National Council, 16–18 June 1966’.

121 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/2, F32, ‘Agricultural Coop Mechanization Scheme circular no. 18’, 1967.

122 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/4, F11A, ‘Cooperative Circular No.1’, 29 Oct. 1965.

123 See also, Ferguson, Shadows, 75–7.

124 NAZ, Loc. 67, Mag. 1/8/10, F73, ‘Mechanization scheme evaluation’, 3 Feb. 1967.

125 Hansard, 6 July 1967, 725, Mulemba, Lukusuzi; NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F179, ‘Cabinet minutes’, 6 Dec. 1966, and NAZ, Loc. 6871, CO3/1/141, F20, ‘Maize price policy’, 25 Sept. 1967.

126 NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F182, Memo from AG Zulu, 5 Jan. 1967.

127 NAZ, Loc. 69, Mag. 1/8/23, F14, ‘Back to the land policy’, 22 June 1967.

128 UNIP 1/1/6, ‘Emergency national council’, 30–31 Aug. 1967.

129 NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/6, F182, Memo from AG Zulu, 5 Jan 1967.

130 As covered in the debate on the COZ in Hansard, 7 July 1967.

131 Hansard, 6 July 1967, 835–7, H. Nkumbula.

132 Hansard, 11 July 1967, 863, N. Tembo, Ndola East.

133 NAZ, Loc. 60, Mag. 1/5/28, F9, ‘Economic Planning Committee’, 31 Jan. 1967.

134 R. Dumont, Socialisms and Development (London, 1973).

135 R. Dumont, The Principal Problems of Agricultural Development in Independent Zambia (Lusaka, 1967).

136 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/2, F44/1, ‘DOC comments on Professor Dumont's report’.

137 NAZ, Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/13, F111, D. Yadin to Mwamba, 7 Feb. 1967.

138 K. Kaunda, ‘Speech to National Convention on Rural Development, 12–16 Dec. 1969’ (Lusaka, 1970), 29.

139 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/2, F97, Chisembele to Mwamba, 19 June 1968; NAZ Loc. 106, Mag. 1/21/12, F20, Mwamba to Ministry of Rural Development, 9 May 1969.

140 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/2, F97, Chisembele to DOC, 19 June 1968, and F121, Mwamba to Nyalugwe, 16 Aug. 1968.

141 NAZ, Loc. 105, Mag. 1/21/10, F8, Nyalugwe to Mutale, 31 Mar. 1967, and NAZ, Loc. 60, Mag. 1/5/29, F61, F726, ‘Memo, MYCSD’, 15 June 1968.

142 NAZ, Loc. 104, Mag. 1/21/2, F97, Chisembele to Mwamba, 19 June 1968.

143 NAZ, Loc. 4283, MRD 1/2/3, F8, ‘Confidential monthly report’, Sept. 1970.

144 NAZ, Loc. 6815, LP2/3/1, F63, ‘Survey of Luapula farming cooperatives’, Sept. 1973.

145 NAZ, Loc. 101, Mag. 1/19/21, F7, ‘Advisory committee for FAO/SIDA cooperative project in Luapula’, 26 Aug. 1969, and F20, ‘Luapula cooperative managers’ report, April-May 1971'.

146 NAZ, Loc. 158, Mag. 2/6/64, F2, ‘Rural Sector Objectives’, 3 Mar. 1971.

147 Government of Zambia, Second National Development Plan (Lusaka, 1971), 61.

148 Bates, Rural, 126–7, and Vaughan, ‘Exploitation’.

149 E. F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful: Economics As If People Mattered (London, 1973).

150 NAZ, Loc. 157, Mag. 2/6/60, F49/1, ‘Rural development in Zambia, Memorandum by E. F. Schumacher and Julia Porter’.

151 NAZ, Loc. 158, Mag. 2/6/61, F57, ‘Soil conservation programme, SNDP’, 25 Feb. 1971.

152 NAZ, Loc. 158, Mag. 2/6/64, F2, ‘Rural sector objectives and strategy’, 3 Mar. 71, see also B. D. G. Fortman, After Mulungushi: The Economics of Zambian Humanism (Dar es Salaam, 1969); and Quick, ‘Humanism’, 101–09.

153 NAZ, Loc. 157, Mag. 2/6/59, F74, SNDP, Kashita to all heads of department, 1 Apr. 1969.

154 NAZ, Loc. 60, Mag. 1/5/29, F61, ‘Rural Sector Development Committee, May 1968’, and NAZ, Loc. 158, Mag. 2/6/64, F2, ‘Rural sector objectives and strategy’, 3 Mar. 1971.

155 Ibid; Government of Zambia, SNDP, 63, and NAZ, Loc. 157, Mag. 2/6/60, F33, ‘Meeting on SNDP’, 16 July 1969.

156 Ibid; Government of Zambia, SNDP, 61.

157 NAZ, Loc. 6815, LP2/3/1, F12, ‘Address by Kenneth Kaunda’, 12 Jan. 1970.

158 NAZ, Loc. 6875, CO3/1/177, F17, F20, EA Kashita to Secretary to the Cabinet, 4 July 1968, and F23, VS Musakanya, to PS MOA, 2 Aug. 1968.

159 NAZ, Mag. 1/11/16, ‘National Council for Scientific Research’, 4 Nov. 1967. Such efforts had been gravely damaged by UDI, which led to Zambia's withdrawal from the Agricultural Research Council for Central Africa, see ‘Zambia quits joint council’, Times of Zambia, 5 Apr. 1967.

160 NAZ, Loc. 158, Mag. 2/6/64, F2, ‘Rural Sector Objectives and Strategy’, 3 Mar. 1971.

161 NAZ, Loc. 60, Mag. 1/5/29, F47, ‘National Development Committee minutes’, 6 Mar. 1968, Loc. 158, Mag. 2/6/61, F48/1, ‘Evaluation of the FNDP’, 7 Aug. 1970, and Loc. 167. Mag. 2/8/22, F4, ‘Research Policy’, 15 Aug. 1967.

162 On colonial/postcolonial continuities see Bonneuil, ‘Development as experiment’.

163 C. Gertzel, The Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia (Manchester, 1984).

164 Bates, Rural, 141.

165 M. Faber and D. Seers, The Crisis in Planning (Sussex, 1972), 17–32.

166 In particular, Eicher, C. K., ‘Facing up to Africa's food crisis’, Foreign Affairs, 61:1 (1982), 151–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; R. Bates, Markets and States: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies (Berkley, 1981); and E. Berg et al. Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Agenda for Action (Washington, 1981).

167 For example, Ferguson, Global Shadows.

168 See G. C. Mrema, D. Baker, and D. Kahan, ‘Agricultural mechanization in sub-Saharan Africa: time for a new look’, Agricultural Marketing, Management and Finance, Occasional Paper (Rome, 2008), 3–8.