Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T13:36:55.619Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

MAU MAU'S ARMY OF CLERKS: COLONIAL MILITARY SERVICE AND THE KENYA LAND FREEDOM ARMY IN KENYA'S NATIONAL IMAGINATION*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 June 2017

TIMOTHY H. PARSONS
TIMOTHY H. PARSONS*
Affiliation:
Washington University, St Louis, Missouri
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Scholarly and popular histories of Kenya largely agree that African Second World War veterans played a central role in the Kenya Land Freedom Army. Former African members of the colonial security forces have reinforced these assumptions by claiming to have been covert Mau Mau supporters, either after their discharge, or as serving soldiers. In reality, few Mau Mau generals had actual combat experience. Those who served in the colonial military usually did so in labor units or support arms. It therefore warrants asking why so many Kenyans accept that combat veterans played such a central role in the KLFA and in Kenyan history. Understanding how veterans of the colonial army have become national heroes, both for their wartime service and their supposed leadership of Mau Mau, reveals the capacity of popular history to create more useful and inclusive forms of African nationalism.

Keywords

KenyaEast Africahistoriographyindependence warsmilitarynationalism
Type
Decolonizing Kenya
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 58 , Issue 2 , July 2017 , pp. 285 - 309
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Thanks to John Lonsdale and Derek Peterson for comments on this article. To the memory of John Nunneley, David Kimonyi Muoki, Stephen Savano Maveke, and all the other East African veterans of the Burma Campaign. Author's email: tparsons@wustl.edu

References

1 Thiong'o, N. wa, Weep Not, Child (Oxford, 1989), 68Google Scholar.

2 According to Maina wa Kinyatti, the KLFA was the military wing of the [Mau Mau] movement, see Kinyatti, M. wa (ed.), The Dedan Kimathi Papers (Nairobi, 1987), 2Google Scholar.

3 Hewitt, P., Kenya Cowboy: A Police Officer's Account of the Mau Mau Emergency (Johannesburg, 2008), 135–6;Google Scholar Henderson, I. and Goodheart, P., Man Hunt in Kenya (Garden City, NY, 1958), 17Google Scholar.

4 Kenya National Archives (KNA) DEF 1/130/33, Memos on Manpower Demobilisation and Reabsorption, 1946–7; The National Archives of Great Britain, London (TNA) WO 276/516, Appreciation on Future Military Policy in Kenya, 1954.

5 Atieno-Odhiambo, E. S., ‘The invention of Kenya’, in Ogot, B. A. and Atieno-Odhiambo, E. S. (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940–93 (London, 1995), 303Google Scholar; Branch, D., Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War, and Decolonization (Cambridge, 2009), xiiGoogle Scholar.

6 Mazrui, A., ‘On heroes and Uhuru worship’, Transition, 11 (1963), 24Google Scholar.

7 Interview with Tom Mzungu, June 1994.

8 Ngugi, Weep Not, Child, 9–10.

9 Huttenbach, L. L., The Boy is Gone: Conversations with a Mau Mau General (Athens, OH, 2015), 43Google Scholar.

10 Anderson, D., Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire (New York, 2005), 36Google Scholar; (http://www.nation.co.ke/lifestyle/DN2/The-big-dirty-meat-market-in-the-city-/-/957860/1411148/-/view/printVersion/-/ngqe0nz/-/index.html).

11 Henderson, Manhunt in Kenya, 17; Karimi, J., Dedan Kimathi: The Whole Story (Nairobi, 2013), 15–17 Google Scholar.

12 Wachanga, H. K., in Whittier, R. (ed.), The Swords of Kirinyaga: The Fight for Land and Freedom (Nairobi, 1991), 26Google Scholar; Karimi, Dedan Kimathi, 15–17.

13 Anonymous, ‘Bulldozers in haunts of Mau Mau gunmen’, The Mail (Adelaide), 10 Oct. 1953; J. Nottingham, ‘Witness statement, claimants Ndiku Mutua & others and defendant Foreign and Commonwealth Office’, 10 Nov. 2010, (http://www.leighday.co.uk/LeighDay/media/LeighDay/documents/Mau%20Mau/Witness_Statement_John_Cato_Nottingham_10-11-2012.pdf?ext=.pdf).

14 Njagi, D., The Last Mau Mau Field Marshals (Limuru, Kenya, 1993), 82Google Scholar.

15 Evans, P., Law and Disorder: Scenes of Life in Kenya (London, 1956), 113Google Scholar. Some three years into his detention Ngei did, however, petition the Kenyan governor to release him on the grounds that: ‘I did not participate in any way or form knowingly in assisting in the management of Mau Mau.’ See TNA FCO 141/6797, P. J. Ngei to Kenya Governor, 2 Jan. 1955.

16 Parsons, T. H., The African Rank-and-File: Social Implications of Colonial Service in the King's African Rifles, 1902–64 (Portsmouth, 1999), 89–91 Google Scholar.

17 Anderson, D., ‘Guilty secrets: deceit, denial, and the discovery of Kenya's “migrated archive”’, History Workshop Journal, 80 (2015), 142–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moradi, A., ‘Towards an objective account of nutrition and health in colonial Kenya: a study of stature in African army recruits and civilians, 1880–1980’, Journal of Economic History, 69 (2009), 724CrossRefGoogle Scholar; A. Moradi and S. Mylavarapu, ‘Men under arms in colonial Africa: East African forces’, 2008, database available by request to Alexander Moradi.

18 The Kenyan authorities regarded the Kikuyu, Embu, and Meru as a single community in keeping military recruiting statistics. KNA DEF 1/130/33, Memos on Manpower Demobilisation and Reabsorption, 1946–7.

19 KNA PC NZA 2/3/84, Kenya Natives in Military Service, Analysis by Unit, 30 Apr. 1942; TNA WO 172/6484, 11 (EA) Division Order of Battle; Moyse-Bartlett, H., The King's African Rifles (Aldershot, UK, 1956), 575, 663, 673Google Scholar.

20 For example, Mohamed Mathu and Elijah Kinyua Ngang'a, aka General Bahati, were in their early teens during the war. Gucu Gikoyo was only five years old in 1939. See Mathu, M., Urban Guerrilla: The Story of Muhamed Mathu (Richmond, BC, 1974), 11Google Scholar; Ngang'a, E. Kinyua and Ngumo, D. Magu, A Walk in the Fire: A True Story by General Bahati (Nairobi, 2003), 14Google Scholar; Gikoyo, G., We Fought for Freedom: Tulipigania Uhuru (Nairobi, 1979), 1Google Scholar.

21 KNA DEF 1/130/1, Memorandum to Standing Finance Committee on Man Power, Demobilisation and Training, by E. M. Hyde-Clark 30 Apr. 1946.

22 Kitson, F., Gangs and Counter-Gangs (London, 1960), 15–16 Google Scholar; Holman, D., Bwana Drum (London, 1964), 12–13 Google Scholar.

23 Corfield, F. D., Historical Survey of the Origins and Growth of Mau Mau, Command 1030 (London, 1960), 220Google Scholar; Rosberg, C. and Nottingham, J., The Myth of ‘Mau Mau’: Nationalism and Colonialism in Kenya (Nairobi, 1985), xvii, 378Google Scholar.

24 Glazier, R., ‘Review: The Myth of “Mau Mau” ’, Journal of Modern African History, 4:3 (1966), 387Google Scholar; Mair, L., ‘The myth of Mau Mau’, International Affairs, 43:4 (1967), 775Google Scholar; Bennett, G., ‘Review: General China ’, The Journal of African History, 9:1 (1968), 179Google ScholarPubMed; Nottingham, J., ‘Establishing an African publishing industry: a study in decolonization’, African Affairs, 68:271 (1969), 139CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 In addition to East African Publishing House books like Waruhiu Itote's ‘Mau Mau’ General, Nottingham also helped produce earlier key work's like ‘Mau Mau’ Detainee. Bennett, G., ‘Review: The Myth of “Mau Mau” ’, The Journal of African History, 8:3 (1967), 562Google Scholar; Kariuki, J. M., ‘ Mau Mau ’ Detainee (Oxford, 1963)Google Scholar; Itote, W., ‘ Mau Mau ’ General (Nairobi, 1967)Google Scholar.

26 Rosberg and Nottingham, The Myth of ‘Mau Mau’, 192–4, 240, 297.

27 Shiroya, O. J. E., Kenya and World War Two: African Soldiers in the European War (Nairobi, 1985), 144Google Scholar; Majdalany, F., State of Emergency: The Full Story of Mau Mau (London, 1962), 23Google Scholar.

28 Maina, P., Six Mau Mau Generals (Nairobi, 1977), 35Google Scholar.

29 Throup, D. W., Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau (Nairobi, 1988)Google Scholar; Furedi, F., The Mau Mau War in Perspective (Nairobi, 1990)Google Scholar; Kanogo, T., Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau (Nairobi, 1993)Google Scholar.

30 Kahiga, S., Dedan Kimathi: The Real Story (Nairobi, 1992), 96–7Google Scholar.

31 Elkins, C., Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya (New York, 2005), 25Google Scholar; Huttenbach, The Boy is Gone, xv.

32 Maathai, W., Unbowed: A Memoir (New York, 2008), 63Google Scholar.

33 wa Wanjau, Mau Mau Author in Detention, vi.

34 Maina, E., Oboka, W., and Makong'o, J., History and Government Form 3 Pupils Book (Nairobi, 2004), 116Google Scholar; Hunt, L., Martin, T., Rosenwein, B., and Smith, B., Making of the West, Volume II: Since 1500: Peoples and Cultures (New York, 2012), 933Google Scholar.

35 Burkett, B. G. and Whitley, G., Stolen Valor: How the Vietnam Generation Was Robbed of Its Heroes and Its History (Dallas, 1998), 352Google Scholar.

36 KNA DC TAMB 1/9/16/146, African Eligibility for Service Medals & Stars; Osborne, M., Ethnicity and Empire in Kenya: Loyalty and Martial Race among the Kamba, c. 1800 to the Present (Cambridge, 2014), 234CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smurthwaite, D., The Forgotten War: the British Army in the Far East, 1941–5 (London, 1992), 167Google Scholar.

37 Paul Ngei, for example, most likely embellished his military credentials in his testimony at the Kapenguria Six trial. The Trial of Jomo Kenyatta and 5 Others, v. III, 1759–60, RR 9/15. See also KNA MAA 2/3/10/III/16d, South Kavirondo District Annual Report 1944; Anonymous, ‘Bulldozers in haunts of Mau Mau gunmen’.

38 Ngugi, Weep Not, Child, 26; Karimi, Dedan Kimathi, 13–14, 377.

39 Gray, B., Basuto Soldiers in Hitler's War (Maseuru, 1953), 54–6Google Scholar; Majdalany, State of Emergency, 23.

40 Moreover, the Obama family history has Onyango enlisting at the age of 47 and returning home early from the war in 1941. As East African units did not beginning fighting in Burma until 1944, it is highly unlikely that he could have served there. Firstbrook, P., The Obamas: The Untold Story of an African Family (New York, 2010), 161–2Google Scholar.

41 Along with a battalion of the Northern Rhodesia Regiment, 23 KAR was on garrison duty, most likely in Syria, Iraq, or Iran. TNA WO 193/121, WO to CnC ME, 9 Mar. 1940; TNA WO 253/7, East Africa Directorate of Labour; TNA WO 169/18211, EAC conference minutes, 25 July 1944.

42 Interview courtesy of Victoria Mutheu and Sagwa Chabeda, Washington University African Oral History Project, Aug. 2015.

43 Killingray, D., Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War (Rochester, NY, 2010), 206–7Google Scholar; Parsons, The African Rank-and-File, 259–60.

44 Shiroya, Kenya and World War Two, 124, 154–6.

45 For the most complete, but still not definitive list, of East African wartime units, see Ministry of Information, East Africans at War (Nairobi, 1944)Google Scholar.

46 Parsons, The African Rank-and-File, 73–7.

47 In 1943, the East African Governor's Conference chastised Kenya for attempting to shift even more of its military recruiting obligations to Uganda and Tanganyika. KNA DEF 9/4/167, Defence (African Labour for Essential Undertakings) 1942; KNA DEF 15/27/12, Chief Secretary East Africa Governors’ Conference to Chief Native Commissioner Kenya, 9 Nov. 1942.

48 Kenya's recruiting quota for the KAR in 1944 was zero. KNA DEF 15/28/74, Executive Circular on African Manpower, 21 Oct. 1943; KNA KSM 1/22/14, Order of Precedence for KAR Battalions 1945; KNA DEF 15/29/87a, EAC HQ to Chief Secretary Kenya, 18 Jan. 1945.

49 KNA MD 4/5/140/65a, CSEAG to Chief Secretaries Uganda and Tanganyika, 14 Feb. 1942; TNA CO 820/48/12, CSEAG to Under Colonial Secretary, 19 Feb. 1942.

50 Britain, Great, Office, War, Kenya Military Report (London: War Office, 1937)Google Scholar; KNA PC CP 4/3/2, Central Province Annual Report 1939; KNA CNC 10/129/4, Secretary to Chief Political Officer to CNC, 26 Mar. 1940; Corfield, Historical Survey of the Origins and Growth of Mau Mau, 47–8.

51 CNC/10/129/5, CNC to Secretary to Chief Political Officer, 30 Mar. 1940.

52 In Nyasaland, civil authorities had to remind military recruiters that the supposedly martial Nguru and non-martial Ampatola were actually from the same community. Social scientists who try to use colonial-era tribal recruiting quotas as datasets would do well to note this reality. Malawi National Archives (MNA) S41 1/20/4, Minute to Chief Secretary Nyasaland, 8 Apr. 1943; KNA PC NZA 2/3/84, Kenya Natives in Military Service, Analysis by Unit, 30 Apr. 1942. For a more detailed discussion of martial race theory and imperial recruiting, see Parsons, T. H., ‘“Wakamba warriors are soldiers of the queen”: the evolution of the Kamba as a martial race, 1890–1970’, Ethnohistory, 46 (1999), 672–4Google Scholar.

53 KNA MAA /2/3/16/III/42, EAC HQ to Chief Secretary, 20 May 1940; KNA DC NYI 2/10/1/109, Central Province Intelligence Report, Apr. 1942.

54 Wachanga, The Swords of Kirinyaga, 26; Karimi, Dedan Kimathi, 15–17.

55 KNA MD 4/5/135/61a, ‘Report of committee in respect of Native Labour’, 12 Aug. 1940; TNA WO 106/5099, Notes for WO Liaison Officer (EA), 5 May 1942.

56 TNA WO 106/5102, Trade Test for Class III Sanitary Orderlies, 1943.

57 KNA OPE 1/7/112/1, Safari Report by Robertson-Glasgow, 26 May 1960.

58 Oxford Colonial Records Project (OCRP) Weston Library, Bodleian Libraries, Oxford (WL) Mss.Afr.s.1715/24, Captain John Nunneley; Interviews with John Nunneley Oct. 1994 and June 2004.

59 Itote, ‘Mau Mau’ General, 23; Osborne, M. (ed.), The Life and Times of General China: Mau Mau and the End of Empire in Kenya (Princeton, 2015), 146Google Scholar.

60 OCRP WL, Mss.Afr.s.1715/176, Lieutenant Colonel C. G. Robson; OCRP WL, Mss.Afr.s.1715/203, Nunneley; Michael W. Biggs Private Papers, Lieutenant Colonel M. W. Biggs to General Mansergh, CO 11 (EA) Division, 3 Jan. 1945; Interview with Michael W. Biggs, Nov. 1994.

61 Nunneley, J., Tales from the King's African Rifles (London, 1998), 67Google Scholar.

62 Itote, ‘Mau Mau’ General, 27.

63 For the most comprehensive history of the AAPC to date, see A. Jackson, ‘Supplying the war: the High Commission Territories’ military-logistical contribution in the Second World War’, Journal of Military History, 66 (2002), 719–60.

64 KNA MD 4/5/137/10, East Africa Governors’ Conference Notes, Future of EAMLS, 10 Apr. 1941; KNA MD 4/5/117/III/8, General Routine Order 1842, African Auxiliary Pioneer Corps, 6 Oct. 1941; KNA DEF 15/29/87a, EAC HQ to Chief Secretary Kenya, 18 Jan. 1945.

65 KNA MD 4/5/66/26a, Report by J. E. V. Ross, AAPC Welfare Officer, 27 July 1942; KNA PC NZA 2/3/97/1, Ross to Director of Pioneers and Labour MEC, July 1942.

66 Interviews with Okong'o Ounya, Barnabas Mochoge, and Ahmed Ali Mohammed, Mar.–Apr. 1994.

67 Kaggia, B., Roots of Freedom, 1921–63 (Nairobi, 1975), 22–7, 33–6Google Scholar.

68 Gikoyo, We Fought for Freedom, 295–7; Wachanga, The Swords of Kirinyaga, 172–3; Maina, Six Mau Mau Generals, 56–8; Kahiga, Dedan Kimathi: The Real Story, 140–1.

69 Republic of Kenya, The National Assembly House of Representatives Official Report, ‘Whereabouts of Stanley Mathenge, Question No. 319’, v. 8, 7 June 1963; Karimi, Dedan Kimathi, 383; ‘Kenya's lost general: a case of mistaken identity’, The Economist, 12 June 2003.

70 Awori, J. and Mungai, E. (eds.), Kenya Women Reflections (Nairobi, 1983), 164Google Scholar; KNA MD 4/5/137/144a, Report by Buganda Resident A. H. Cox, 15 Mar. 1943; KNA DEF 15/12/45a, Sidney Fazan, Report Visit to the East African Troops, 19 July to 20 Aug. 1944; Wachanga, The Swords of Kirinyaga, 24–31.

71 Kenyatta, J., Kenya: The Land of Conflict (London, c. 1944), 19–20 Google Scholar.

72 Ward, S. R., ‘Intelligence surveillance of British ex-servicemen, 1918–20’, The Historical Journal, 16 (1973), 184–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 ‘The returned askari: the problem of demobilization in East Africa’, The Times (London), 21 Aug. 1945.

74 KNA DEF 1/130/1, Memorandum to Standing Finance Committee, 30 Apr. 1946, by Kenyan Labour Commissioner; KNA MAA 2/1/49/187, Central Province Intelligence Report, July 1946; KNADEF 1/130/15a/1, Report on Demobilisation and Reabsorption for Period Aug. 1946–Apr. 1947; Brands, H., ‘Wartime recruiting practices, martial identity, and post-World War II demobilization in colonial Kenya’, The Journal of African History, 46 (2005), 124–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Parsons, The African Rank-and-File, 259–60.

75 TNA WO/169/6965, Lieutenant Colonel R. E. Yeldham CO 2/3 KAR to HQ 25 Brigade, 17 Feb. 1942; Furedi, F., ‘The demobilized African soldier and the blow to white prestige’, in Killingray, D. and Omissi, D. (eds.), Guardians of Empire (Manchester, 1999), 182–4, 187Google Scholar.

76 Hyam, R., Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–68 (Cambridge, 2006), 94–7Google Scholar; Bayly, C. and Harper, T., Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia (Cambridge, MA, 2007), 6–7 Google Scholar.

77 Altrincham, Lord, Kenya's Opportunity: Memories, Hopes, and Ideas (London, 1955), 230Google Scholar; Corfield, Historical Survey of the Origins and Growth of Mau Mau, 49.

78 Mazrui, A., ‘Africa and the legacy of the Second World War: political, economic and cultural aspects’, in UNESCO's Africa and the Second World War (Paris, 1985), 13–14 Google Scholar.

79 Parsons, T. H., ‘No country fit for heroes: the plight of disabled Kenyan veterans’, in Byfield, J., Brown, C., Parsons, T. H., and Sikainga, A. (eds.), Africa and World War II (New York, 2015), 127–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives (LHC) DP/IX/3, Brigadier H. H. Dempsey General Dimoline, 14 June 1945; KNA CNC 10/68/46a, o/c 1851 (EA) Garrison Company to Kenya Information Office, 29 July 1945; KNA DEF 10/63/12, Kenyan Secretariat to Director of Man Power, 3 Oct. 1946.

81 Furedi, F., ‘The African crowd in Nairobi: popular movements and elite politics’, The Journal of African History, 14:2 (1973), 284–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rosberg and Nottingham, The Myth of ‘Mau Mau’, 240; Itote, ‘Mau Mau’ General, 38.

82 Kanogo, T., Dedan Kimathi: Makers of Kenya's History, No. 3 (Nairobi, 1992), 12Google Scholar; Maloba, W., Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (Bloomington, IN, 1993), 36Google Scholar. See also Maina, Six Mau Mau Generals, 13; McIntyre, D., The Commonwealth of Nations: Origins and Impact, 1869–1971 (Minneapolis, 1977), 415Google Scholar; Killingray, Fighting for Britain, 223.

83 Fazan, S. H., in Lonsdale, J. (ed.), Colonial Kenya Observed: British Rule, Mau Mau and the Wind of Change (London, 2015), 189Google Scholar.

84 Itote, ‘Mau Mau’ General, 46, 51.

85 Barnett, D. L. and Njama, K., Mau Mau from Within (London, 1966), 235–6Google Scholar.

86 KNA DEF 15/12/80a, East Africa Political Liaison Officer, Report on a Visit to the East African Troops in SE Asia, 30 June 1945; KNA OPE 1/7/72/2, Report of Safari by Robertson-Glasgow, 2 July 1959.

87 Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 244; Lathbury, G., ‘The security forces in the Kenya Emergency’, in Joelson, F. S. (ed.), Rhodesia and East Africa (London, 1958), 37–8Google Scholar; Durrani, S., Kimaathi: Mau Mau's First Prime Minister of Kenya (Middlesex, UK, 1986), 9Google Scholar.

88 East Africa Command, A Handbook on Anti-Mau Mau Operations (Nairobi, 1954), 3–4 Google Scholar.

89 Bennett, H., Fighting the Mau Mau: The British Army and Counter-Insurgency in the Kenya Emergency (Cambridge, 2013), 13Google Scholar.

90 OCRP WL, Mss.Afr.s. 1580/12, Major-General William Hinde, Brief for C-in-C, 5 June 1953; East Africa Command, A Handbook on Anti-Mau Mau Operations, 11.

91 Ngang'a and Ngumo, A Walk in the Fire, 22, 31.

92 Wachanga, The Swords of Kirinyaga, 72, 76.

93 Elkins, Imperial Reckoning, 43.

94 Kanogo, Dedan Kimathi, 8.

95 Peterson, D., Creative Writing: Translation, Bookkeeping, and the Work of Imagination in Colonial Kenya (Portsmouth, NH, 2004), 138, 203–5Google Scholar.

96 Lonsdale, J., ‘Moral and political argument in Kenya’, in Berman, B., Eyoh, D., and Kymlicka, W. (eds.), Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa (Oxford, 2004), 87Google Scholar.

97 Kanogo, Dedan Kimathi, 20–1.

98 Gikoyo, We Fought for Freedom, 76.

99 wa Kinyatti, The Dedan Kimathi Papers, viii, 189–90.

100 ‘76,000 rounds of ammunition lead to prison’, East African Standard (Nairobi), 5 Apr. 1949.

101 Ngang'a and Ngumo, A Walk in the Fire, 12; Interview with Tom Mzungu, June 1994.

102 Coombes, A., Hughes, L., and Munene, K., Managing Heritage, Making Peace: History, Identity and Memory in Contemporary Kenya (London, 2014), 59Google Scholar.

103 Itote, ‘Mau Mau’ General, 85–90; Interviews with Matthew Kipoin and Peter Ingoli, Mar.–Apr. 1994; Clayton, A., Counterinsurgency in Kenya: A Study of Military Operations Against the Mau Mau, 1952–60 (Manhattan, KS, 1984), 19–20 Google Scholar.

104 KNA DC MUR 1/4/6, Record Book of Chiefs and Headmen, Fort Hall, 1937–54; Smith, D. Lovatt, Kenya, The Kikuyu and Mau Mau (Herstmonceaux, UK, 2005), 183Google Scholar.

105 Mwangi, E., ‘The incomplete rebellion: Mau Mau movement in twenty-first-century Kenyan popular culture’, Africa Today, 57:2 (2010), 88CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

106 Branch, Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya, xii–iii; Karimi, Dedan Kimathi, 383.

107 Coombes, A., ‘Monumental histories: commemorating Mau Mau with the statue of Dedan Kimathi’, African Studies, 70:2 (2011), 204CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

108 ‘UK to compensate Kenya's Mau Mau torture victims’, The Guardian, 6 June 2013; H. Ayodo, ‘LSK raise fresh concerns over Mau Mau claimants’, c. July 2013, (http://lsk.or.ke/index.php/component/content/article/1-latest-news/273-lsk-raise-fresh-concerns-over-mau-mau-claimants).

109 Interviews with Barnabas Mochoge and Ishmael Mugona Osoro Mar. 1994; Interviews with David Kimonyi, Munguti wa Kieti, and Philemon Mudamba Eboyi, courtesy of Victoria Mutheu and Sagwa Chabeda, Washington University African Oral History Project, Aug. 2015.

110 Hughes, L., ‘“Truth be told”: some problems with historical revisionism in Kenya’, African Studies, 70:2 (2011), 183CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

111 National Council of Law Report. The Constitution of Kenya, rev. edn, 2010, (http://kenyaembassy.com/pdfs/the%20constitution%20of%20kenya.pdf).

112 Carrier, N. and Nyamweru, C., ‘Reinventing Africa's national heroes: the case of Mekatilili, a Kenyan popular heroine’, African Affairs, 115:461 (2016), 604CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

113 Forthcoming documentary Askari by Victoria Mutheu and Sagwa Chabeda. For a preview, see (http://vimeo.com/73128531).