Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T03:40:52.884Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Is Côte d'Ivoire a Test Case for R2P? Democratization as Fulfilment of the International Community's Responsibility to Prevent

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 August 2012

Foluke Ipinyomi
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

After the election deadlock in Côte d'Ivoire, the international community recognized Ouattara as the winner of the elections, while the incumbent president, Gbagbo, also claimed victory. When they were both sworn in, violence ensued. UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon stated that the international community had a responsibility to protect citizens. Thereafter, the UN, African Union and ECOWAS attempted to quell the violence through mediation and the threat of force. Gbagbo was eventually ousted by Ouattara's forces. This article examines the international community's responsibility to prevent and its actions in that regard. If democratization is a means to prevent mass atrocities, what was the nature of the international community's responsibility to Ivoirians to prevent conflict? What should be the international community's reaction to internal agitations for democracy? Some answers to these questions lie in the framework for the international community's responsibility to prevent the four crimes related to R2P.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of African Law , Volume 56 , Issue 2 , October 2012 , pp. 151 - 174
Copyright
Copyright © School of Oriental and African Studies 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 ECOWAS “Press statement by the president of the ECOWAS Commission on the current crisis in Côte d'Ivoire” (10 February 2011), available at: <http://news.ecowas.int/presseshow.php?nb=015&lang=en&annee=2011> (last accessed 1 August 2011).

2 Institute for Security Studies “Peace and security report country analysis: Côte d'Ivoire” (10 December 2010) 17 and 8–13.

3 BBC “Viewpoint: Ivory Coast is test case for Africa” (9 December 2010), available at: <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11952773> (last accessed 1 August 2011); JG Cooke “The election crisis in Côte d'Ivoire” (2010, Center for Strategic International Studies), available at: <http://csis.org/publication/election-crisis-ivory-coast> (last accessed 1 August 2011).

4 Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon “Remarks to Security Council meeting on peace and security in Africa” (UN News Centre, 25 February 2011), available at: <http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/sgspeeches/search_full.asp?statID=1095> (last accessed 1 August 2011).

5 Onwubiko, KBCSchool Certificate History of West Africa: AD 1000–1800 (1982, African-FEP Publishers Limited) at 12, 27 and 49Google Scholar; Davidson, B and Buah, FKA History of West Africa, 1000–1800 (1967, Longman) at 21, 35–46, 48–54 and 66–75Google Scholar; Stride, G and Ifeka, CPeoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History, 1000–1800 (1971, Nelson) at 47Google Scholar.

6 Chirot, D “The debacle in Côte d'Ivoire” (2006) 17/2Journal of Democracy 63 at 65–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Smith, MG “A Hausa kingdom: Maradi under Dan Baskore, 1854–74” in Forde, D, Kaberry, PM et al. (eds) West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (1976, Oxford University Press) 93 at 118Google Scholar.

8 J Lombard “The kingdom of Dahomey” in Forde, Kaberry et al (eds), id, 70 at 86; Stride and Ifeka Peoples and Empires, above at note 5 at 60.

9 Stride and Ifeka, id at 23 and 129.

10 Onwubiko School Certificate History, above at note 5 at 21, 45, 65, 101, 161 and 205; Davidson and Buah A History of West Africa, above at note 5 at 80; Stride and Ifeka, id at 44, 54, 61, 75, 302 and 318.

11 Onwubiko, id at 45 and 140; Stride and Ifeka, id at 80.

12 Onwubiko, id at 45, 65–66 and 101; Stride and Ifeka, id at 54, 62, 76, 124 and 318.

13 Onwubiko, id at 194; Stride and Ifeka, id at 55 and 302–03.

14 Onwubiko, id at 66 and 102; Davidson and Buah A History of West Africa, above at note 5 at 80 and 184; Stride and Ifeka, id at 44.

15 Onwubiko, id at 22, 46, 66–67, 85–86, 100, 141, 206 and 218; Davidson and Buah, id at 43; Stride and Ifeka, id at 62, 77 and 125.

16 Stride and Ifeka, id at 41 and 303.

17 Onwubiko School Certificate History, above at note 5 at 22, 46, 66–67, 85–86, 100, 141, 206 and 218; Davidson and Buah A History of West Africa, above at note 5 at 43; Stride and Ifeka, id at 125 and 303.

18 Onwubiko, id at 4 and 224. The Portuguese were not the first Europeans to have visited West Africa though; Greeks were said to have visited between 200 and 400 AD: Stride and Ifeka, id at 173–84; Davidson and Buah, id at 191.

19 Onwubiko, id at 4 and 232; Stride and Ifeka, id at 185.

20 Onwubiko, id at 227; Stride and Ifeka, id at 185–87; Davidson and Buah A History of West Africa, above at note 5 at 194–99 and 208.

21 Onwubiko, id at 100, 140 and 205.

22 Id at 100, 141 and 161; Davidson and Buah A History of West Africa, above at note 5 at 209–11; McGowan, PJ “Coups and conflict in West Africa, 1955–2004: Part I, theoretical perspectives” (2005) 32/1Armed Forces and Society 5 at 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Onwubiko, id at 285; Webster, JB, Boahen, AA et al. The Revolutionary Years: West Africa Since 1800 (1980, Longman) at 52 and 113Google Scholar.

24 Onwubiko, id at 288; Webster, Boahen et al, id at 81–4 and 140–41.

25 Webster, Boahen et al, id at 53.

26 Onwubiko School Certificate History, above at note 5 at 289.

27 Ibid; Webster, Boahen et al The Revolutionary Years, above at note 23 at 92.

28 Webster, Boahen et al, id at 187.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid.

31 Id at 188.

32 Ibid; Crowder, MWest Africa Under Colonial Rule (1968, Northwestern University Press) at 111Google Scholar.

33 Webster, Boahen et al, id at 210.

34 Id at 211.

35 Id at 214; Crowder West Africa Under Colonial Rule, above at note 32 at 167.

36 Webster, Boahen et al, id at 215; Crowder, id at 128.

37 Webster, Boahen et al, ibid.

38 Ibid.

39 Ibid.

40 Crowder West Africa Under Colonial Rule, above at note 32 at 189, 191 and 192.

41 Sylveste, C “‘Our passion for legality’: International law and imperialism in late nineteenth-century Britain” (2008) 34/3Review of International Studies 403 at 422Google Scholar; Udogu, EI “Historicizing and contextualizing the discourse on African international law and a concise overview of the Pacific settlement of the Cameroon-Nigeria Bakassi peninsula dispute” (2008) 7/1African and Asian Studies 77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 Pfaff, W “A new colonialism? Europe must go back to Africa” (1995) 74/1Foreign Affairs 1 at 1–6, particularly at 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 Hallett, RAfrica Since 1875: A Modern History (1976, Heinemann) at 327Google Scholar.

44 Id at 321–22.

45 Akuffo, K “Equity in colonial West Africa: A paradigm of juridical dislocation” (2006) 50/2Journal of African Law 132 at 137CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46 Hallett Africa Since 1875, above at note 43 at 320–21.

47 Crowder West Africa Under Colonial Rule, above at note 32 at 405 and 415; Webster, Boahen et al The Revolutionary Years, above at note 23 at 243–44.

48 Webster, Boahen et al, id at 265.

49 Crowder West Africa Under Colonial Rule, above at note 32 at 433; Webster, Boahen et al, id at 244 and 249–50.

50 Crowder, id at 438.

51 Webster, Boahen et al The Revolutionary Years, above at note 23 at 245.

52 Crowder West Africa Under Colonial Rule, above at note 32 at 438–41.

53 Hallett Africa Since 1875, above at note 43 at 369.

54 Id at 371.

55 Id at 372.

56 Id at 373.

57 Ibid.

58 Id at 398–400.

59 Post, KThe New States of West Africa (1968, Penguin) at 97Google Scholar; Souare, IKCivil Wars and Coups d’État in West Africa: An Attempt to Understand the Roots and Prescribe Possible Solutions (2006, University Press of America) at 21Google Scholar; Hallett Africa Since 1875, above at note 43 at 312.

60 Akuffo “Equity in colonial West Africa”, above at note 45 at 138.

61 Post The New States, above at note 59 at 84; Souare Civil Wars and Coups, above at note 59 at 21.

62 Chirot “The debacle”, above at note 6 at 63; Post The New States, above at note 59 at 96.

63 Chirot, id at 64 and 68; Toungara, JM “Ethnicity and political crisis in Côte d'Ivoire” (2001) 12/3 Journal of Democracy 63 at 66Google Scholar.

64 Klaas, B “From miracle to nightmare: An institutional analysis of development failures in Côte d'Ivoire” (2008) 55/1Africa Today 109 at 116CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Toungara, id at 67.

65 Klaas, id at 116; Toungara, ibid.

66 Klaas, id at 116–17; Chirot “The debacle”, above at note 6 at 67 and 68; Toungara, id at 68.

67 Chirot, id at 64 and 67.

68 Klaas “From miracle to nightmare”, above at note 64 at 117; Toungara “Ethnicity and political crisis”, above at note 63 at 69–70.

69 International Crisis Group (ICG) “Côte d'Ivoire: The war is not yet over” (2003, Africa Report, no 72) at 7, available at: <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/west-africa/cote-divoire/Cote%20dIvoire%20The%20War%20Is%20Not%20Yet%20Over.pdf> (last accessed 2 August 2011); Chirot “The debacle”, above at note 6 at 66.

70 Hallett Africa Since 1875, above at note 43 at 254 and 340.

71 Toungara “Ethnicity and political crisis”, above at note 63 at 65.

72 UN Office for West Africa (UNOWA) “Strengthening media and civil society awareness of conflict prevention and peace-building cross-border issues in West Africa” (paper presented at the UNOWA workshop on reporting for peace, held in Dakar, Senegal on 4 May 2005) at 2.

73 Olonisakin, F “Windows of opportunity for conflict prevention: Responding to regional conflict in West Africa” (2004) 4/2Conflict, Security and Development 181 at 192CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McGowan, PJ “Coups and conflict in West Africa, 1955–2004: Part II, empirical findings” (2005) 32/2Armed Forces and Society 234 at 246CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chirot “The debacle”, above at note 6 at 71.

74 Olonisakin, ibid; Souare Civil Wars and Coups, above at note 59 at 22.

75 Human Rights Watch “Côte d'Ivoire: Pro-Gbagbo forces abducting opponents: Disappearances, killings may fall under International Criminal Court jurisdiction” (press release, 23 December 2010), available at: <http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2010/12/23/c-te-d-ivoire-pro-gbagbo-forces-abducting-opponents> (last accessed 2 August 2011); Amnesty International “Deadly Côte d'Ivoire raid as crisis talks agreed” (press release, 6 January 2011), available at: <http://www.amnesty.org/en/for-media/press-releases/deadly-c%C3%B4te-d%E2%80%99ivoire-raid-crisis-talks-agreed-2011-01-06> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

76 State failure is one of the root causes of internal conflict, according to Sriram, CL and Wermester, K “Preventive action at the United Nations: From promise to practice?” in Hampson, FO and Malone, D (eds) From Reaction to Prevention: Opportunities for the UN System (2002, Boulder Lynne Rienner Publishers) 381 at 384Google Scholar.

77 Foreign Policy “Failed states index 2010”, available at: <http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/06/21/2010_failed_states_index_interactive_map_and_rankings> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

78 UN Security Council res 1967 (2011) S/RES/1967 (19 January 2011); UN News Centre “Security Council extends deployment of extra troops in Côte d'Ivoire” (16 February 2011), available at: <http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37550&Cr=ivoire&Cr1=> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

79 AU “Inaugural meeting of the High Level Panel of the AU on Côte d'Ivoire” (31 January 2011), available at: <http://www.au.int/en/sites/default/files/Communiqué%20sur%20le%20Côte%20d'Ivoire-31%20Jan%2011_EN.pdf> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

80 ECOWAS “Press statement by the president”, above at note 1.

81 UN Charter, art 2(4): “All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.” UN Charter, art 33(1): “The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice.” Dixon, MTextbook on International Law (2007, Oxford University Press) at 275Google Scholar.

82 Olonisakin, F and Aning, K “Humanitarian intervention and human rights: The contradictions in ECOMOG” [Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group] (1999) 3/1The International Journal of Human Rights 16 at 18, 22 and 23CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Draman, R and Carment, D “Managing chaos in the West African sub-region: Assessing the role of ECOMOG in Liberia” (2003) 6/2Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 1 at 3Google Scholar.

83 Stedman, SJ “Conflict and conciliation in Sub-Saharan Africa” in Brown, ME (ed) The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (1996, MIT Press) 235 at 252Google Scholar.

84 Olonisakin and Aning “Humanitarian intervention and human rights”, above at note 82 at 24 and 26.

85 McGowan “Coups and conflict”, above at note 22 at 7.

86 Id at 10.

87 UN doc A/Res/60/1. The 2005 World Summit was held from 14 to 16 September 2005; it was a high level plenary meeting meant to be a follow-up meeting to the UN 2000 Millennium Summit at which the millennium development goals were agreed. The agenda was extracted from proposals made by the then UN Secretary General Annan in his report “In larger freedom” and the report of the High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, titled “A more secure world: Our shared responsibility”. See “The 2005 World Summit: An overview”, available at: <http://www.un-ngls.org/orf/un-summit-overview.pdf> (last accessed 13 June 2012).

88 ICISS The Responsibility to Protect (2001, International Development Research Centre) at 19–45Google Scholar.

89 Id at xi.

90 Ibid.

91 A Bjorkdahl “Preventing violent conflict: The search for political will, strategies and effective tools” (2000) (report of the Krusenberg Seminar, organized by the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute and the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, 19–20 June 2000) at 20–22.

92 Olonisakin “Windows of opportunity”, above at note 73 at 192.

93 Brown, ME “Internal conflict and international action” (1996) in Brown (ed) The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict, above at note 83, 603 at 603Google Scholar, defined international community broadly as the collective of “sovereign states, international organizations, and nongovernmental organizations”.

94 ICISS The Responsibility to Protect, above at note 88 at 26–27, para 3:36.

95 Weiss, TG “Researching humanitarian intervention: Some lessons” (2001) 38/4Journal of Peace Research 419 at 423CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Tomuschat, C “Obligations arising for states without or against their will” (1993) 241 Recueil des Cours [Collected Courses] 195 at 236Google Scholar; Fassbender, B “The United Nations Charter as constitution of the international community” (1998) 36/3Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 529Google Scholar.

97 Weiss “Researching humanitarian intervention”, above at note 95 at 423.

98 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), art 3.

99 UN Security Council res 1674 S/RES/1674 (2006), para 4.

100 The four crimes are: genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing.

101 See Menon, R “Pious words, puny deeds: The ‘international community’ and mass atrocities” (2009) 23/3Ethics & International Affairs 235CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Besson, S “Ubi ius, ibi civitas: A republican account of the international community” in Besson, S and Marti, JL (eds) Legal Republicanism: National and International Perspectives (2009, Oxford University Press) 205CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ellis, DC “On the possibility of ‘international community’” (2009) 11/1International Studies Review 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Addis, A “Imagining the international community: The constitutive dimension of universal jurisdiction” (2009) 31/1Human Rights Quarterly 129CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Allott, P “The emerging universal legal system” in Nijman, J and Nollkaemper, A (eds) New Perspectives on the Divide Between National and International Law (2007, Oxford University Press) 63 at 81–83Google Scholar.

102 Menon, id at 237.

103 Santarelli, C “Non-state actors’ human rights obligations and responsibility under international law” (2008) 15/3Revista Electrónica De Estudios InternacionalesGoogle Scholar, available at: <www.reei.org/index.php/revista/num15/archivos/Carrillo.pdf> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

104 Brölmann, C “The International Court of Justice and international organisations” (2007) 9/2International Community Law Review 181 at 182CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

105 International Court of Justice advisory opinion on Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (2 April 1949) at 178, available at: <http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/4/1835.pdf> (last accessed 31 May 2012).

106 Id at 178–79.

107 AU Constitutive Act 2000, available at: <http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/aboutau/constitutive_act_en.htm> (last accessed 13 June 2012); Treaty of ECOWAS 1993, available at: <http://www.comm.ecowas.int/sec/index.php?id=treaty&lang=en> (last accessed 31 May 2012).

108 Obi, CI “Economic Community of West African States on the ground: Comparing peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire” (2009) 2/2 and 3 African Security 119 at 131CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 Adejumobi, S “Conflict and peace building in West Africa: The role of civil society and the African Union” (2004) 4/1Conflict, Security & Development 59 at 61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

110 Adebajo, ABuilding Peace in West Africa: Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea-Bissau (2002, Lynne Rienner Publishers) at 92Google Scholar.

111 UN Charter, art 2(3).

112 Nieto-Navia, R “International peremptory norms (jus cogens) and international humanitarian law” in Cassese, A, Vohrah, LC et al. (eds) Man's Inhumanity to Man: Essays on International Law in Honour of Antonio Cassese (2003, International Humanitarian Law Series vol 5, Kluwer Law International) 595 at 614–16Google Scholar.

113 Id at 617–18; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, art 53.

114 See McClean, E “The responsibility to protect: The role of international human rights law” (2008) 13/1Journal of Conflict and Security Law 123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

115 International Convention on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 1966, art 6.

116 Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1984, art 1.

117 ICCPR, art 9.

118 id, art 8; Slavery Convention 1926 (approved by UN General Assembly res 794 (VIII) of 23 October 1953), art 1.

119 ICCPR, art 12.

120 The International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 protects the right to food, clothing and housing (art 11) and the right to health (art 12).

121 Gibney, M “Genocide and state responsibility” (2007) 7/4Human Rights Law Review 760 at 769CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

122 A Eide “The new international economic order and the promotion of human rights: Report on the right to adequate food as a human right” (1987, UN Economic and Social Council): E/CN.4/Sub.2/1987/23 at 14, para 66.

123 See Nolan, A “Addressing economic and social rights violations by non-state actors through the role of the state: A comparison of regional approaches to the obligation to protect” (2009) 9/2Human Rights Law Review 225CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eide, ibid; Chenwi, L “Putting flesh on the skeleton: South African judicial enforcement of the right to adequate housing of those subject to evictions” (2008) 8/1Human Rights Law Review 105CrossRefGoogle Scholar; International Commission of Jurists et al. “The Maastricht guidelines on violations of economic, social and cultural rights” (1998) 20/3Human Rights Quarterly 691Google Scholar.

124 Abi-Saab, G “Whither the international community?” (1998) 9 European Journal of International Law 248 at 252CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

125 For example, general comment no 15 (20 January 2003) on the right to water (arts 11 and 12): E/C.12/2002/11; and general comment no 12 (12 May 1999) on the right to adequate food (art 11): E/C.12/1999/5.

126 International Commission of Jurists et al “The Maastricht guidelines”, above at note 123 at 693; Green, M “What we talk about when we talk about indicators: Current approaches to human rights measurement” (2001) 23/4Human Rights Quarterly 1062 at 1071CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

127 Eide “The new international”, above at note 122 at 14; Eide, A “Realization of social and economic rights and the minimum threshold approach” (1989) 10/1–2Human Rights Law Journal 35 at 37Google Scholar.

128 Shue, HBasic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and US Foreign Policy (1996, Princeton University Press) at 36Google Scholar.

129 Strauss, EThe Emperor's New Clothes: The United Nations and the Implementation of the Responsibility to Protect (2009, Nomos) at 31, 33 and 34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

130 Eide “The new international”, above at note 122 at 14–15; Eide “Realization of social”, above at note 127 at 37.

131 ICISS The Responsibility to Protect, above at note 88 at 19, paras 3.3 and 3.4.

132 Id at 19, para 3.5.

133 UN General Assembly res 60/251, para 5(e).

134 Toungara “Ethnicity and political crisis”, above at note 63 at 68.

135 Thoms, ONT and Ron, J “Do human rights violations cause internal conflict?” (2007) 29/3Human Rights Quarterly 674 at 686CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

136 Cerone, J “Jurisdiction and power: The intersection of human rights law and the law of non-international armed conflict in an extraterritorial context” (2007) 40/2Israel Law Review 72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

137 Kacowicz, AM “‘Negative’ international peace and domestic conflicts, West Africa, 1957–96” (1997) 35/3The Journal of Modern African Studies 367 at 375CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

138 International Peace Academy “The regionalization of conflict and intervention” (2003) 4 IPA Seminar Report 1 at 4Google Scholar.

139 Chirot “The debacle”, above at note 6 at 67.

140 Toungara “Ethnicity and political crisis”, above at note 63 at 71.

141 Hanlon, J “Is the international community helping to recreate the preconditions for war in Sierra Leone?” (2005) 94 The Round Table 459 at 461CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

142 IMF “The IMF and good governance” (fact sheet) at 1, available at: <http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/gov.htm> (last accessed 2 August 2011); IMF “The poverty reduction and growth facility (PRGF): Operational issues”, available at: <http://www.imf.org/external/np/pdr/prsp/poverty2.htm> (last accessed 2 August 2011); Kaufmann, D and Kraay, A “Governance indicators: Where are we, where should we be going?” (2008) 23/1World Bank Research Observer 1Google Scholar; Santiso, C “Good governance and aid effectiveness: The World Bank and conditionality” (2001) 7/1The Georgetown Public Policy Review 1Google Scholar.

143 Kaufmann and Kraay, id at 2.

144 IMF “The IMF and good governance”, above at note 142 at 1–3; World Bank Institute “Governance matters 2008: Worldwide governance indicators 1996–2007” (2008), available at: <http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/pdf/WBI_GovInd08-5a.pdf> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

145 Fabry, M “The right to democracy in international law: A classical liberal reassessment” (2009) 37/3Millennium: Journal of International Studies 721 at 723 and 729CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

146 Id at 729.

147 Afolabi, BT “Peacemaking in the ECOWAS region: Challenges and prospects” (2009) 2 Conflict Trends (published by The African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes) 24 at 27Google Scholar; Thoms and Ron “Do human rights”, above at note 135.

148 Ayelazuno, J “The politicisation of the Mirigu-Kandiga conflict in Ghana's 2008 elections: Questioning the electoral peace paradigm” (2009) 2 Conflict Trends 45 at 45Google Scholar.

149 Id at 50; ICG “Nigeria: Failed elections, failing state?” (May 2007) 126 Africa Report 1 at 2.

150 Ayelazuno, id at 46–47; ICG, id at 1 and 8.

151 Ogundiya, IS “Democracy and good governance: Nigeria's dilemma” (2010) 4/6African Journal of Political Science and International Relations 201 at 201 and 204Google Scholar.

152 Agbakwa, SC “A path least taken: Economic and social rights and the prospects of conflict prevention and peacebuilding in Africa” (2003) 47/1Journal of African Law 38 at 60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

153 Toungara “Ethnicity and political crisis”, above at note 63 at 71.

154 Cook, N “Côte d'Ivoire's post-election crisis” (2011) Congressional Research ServiceGoogle Scholar, available at: <http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/156548.pdf> (last accessed 13 June 2012); Zounmenou, D “Côte d'Ivoire: Finally a light at the end of the tunnel?” (2010) Institute for Security StudiesGoogle Scholar, available at: <http://www.iss.co.za/iss_today.php?ID=1051> (last accessed 31 May 2012); L Akande and E Anuforo “Gbagbo seeks private talks with Ouattara” (20 January 2011) The Guardian: Nigeria, available at: <http://ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=36069:gbagbo-seeks-private-talks-with-ouattara-&catid=1:national&Itemid=559> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

155 B Grey “Antigovernment protests spread across North Africa and Middle East” (24 January 2011), available at: <http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=22935> (last accessed 2 August 2011); A Glennie “Pro-democracy protests across the Middle East and North Africa have exploded the myth of Arab ‘exceptionalism’” (2011, London School of Economics and Political Science blogs), available at: <http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/2011/02/02/pro-democracy-protests-across-the-middle-east-and-north-africa-have-exploded-the-myth-of-arab-%E2%80%98exceptionalism%E2%80%99/> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

156 IRIN Africa “Côte d'Ivoire: Crisis runs deeper than election” (4 June 2009), available at: <http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=84698> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

157 Cooke “The election crisis”, above at note 3 at 11.

158 IRIN Africa “Côte d'Ivoire - Liberia: Planning for the refugee influx” (14 January 2011), available at: <http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportID=91636> (last accessed 2 August 2011).

159 Chirot “The debacle”, above at note 6 at 68.

160 See above at note 77.

161 Draman, R “Preventing conflicts in Africa: Reality, empty dream or just difficult?” (2001) 4/2Civil Wars 121 at 128–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.