Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T06:50:44.128Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Strange Birds: Rewriting The Maltese Falcon

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 January 2013

Abstract

Hammett's formative role in establishing the conventions of the hard-boiled detective formula is widely acknowledged, but the formative influence of his masterpiece, The Maltese Falcon, on specific texts by subsequent innovators has remained largely unexplored territory. Both Sara Paretsky and Chester Himes have paid tribute to Hammett's influence, with particular reference to The Maltese Falcon. An examination of Indemnity Only and For the Love of Imabelle in relation to The Maltese Falcon offers a unique perspective on Paretsky's and Himes's stylistic choices and the social perspectives these articulated. It also helps to explain the critical reception of their work. Paretsky, writing within the grain of a type of social realism associated with both protest literature and hard-boiled detective fiction, achieved early recognition. Himes, writing against the grain, did not. Those of his detective novels most closely allied to his protest writing have received the most critical attention, but in For the Love of Imabelle, Himes used techniques allied to surrealism. These effectively disrupted and destabilized important, socially privileged discourses – and discomforted audiences and wrong-footed critics.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Melling, John Kennedy, Murder Done to Death: Parody and Pastiche in Detective Fiction (Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, 1996), 61Google Scholar.

2 “Big Mama” [Boe, Margaret] Birns, “The Maltese Duck Caper: A Mike Wrench Mystery Translated from the Vernacular”, in Winn, Dilys, ed., Murder Ink: A Mystery Reader's Companion (Newton Abbot: Westbridge Books, 1978), 137–39, 138Google Scholar.

3 Chandler, Raymond, “The Simple Art of Murder,” Atlantic Monthly, Dec. 1944, 58Google Scholar.

4 Paretsky, Sara, “The Maltese Cat,” in Paretsky, , VI for Short (London: Penguin, 1995), 106–41Google Scholar; Paretsky, , “Introduction,” in Hammett, Dashiell, The Maltese Falcon (London: The Folio Society, 2000), 18Google Scholar.

5 Fabre, Michel, “Interview with Chester Himes” (from The Hard-Boiled Dicks (Dec. 1983), 89)Google Scholar and Fabre, Michel, “Interview with Chester Himes” (originally published in Le Monde des Livres, 10 Nov. 1970), in Fabre, Michel and Skinner, Robert E., Conversations with Chester Himes (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1995), 141, 84Google Scholar.

6 Himes, Chester, My Life of Absurdity: The Autobiography of Chester Himes, Volume II (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1976), 102Google Scholar.

7 Paretsky, “Introduction”, 11.

8 Ibid., 18.

9 Rozan, S. J., “Sara Paretsky: A Gun of One's Own,” Publisher's Weekly, 25 Oct. 1999, 44Google Scholar.

10 Gilfoyle, Timothy J., “Writing Crime in Chicago: An Interview with Sara Paretsky,” Chicago History (Spring 2003), 5665, 60Google Scholar.

11 Rozan, 44. Walton and Jones note the importance of voice in women's hard-boiled detective fiction. See Walton, Priscilla L. and Jones, Manina, Detective Agency (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 45, 143Google Scholar.

12 On the politics of reversing the gendered gaze see Walton and Jones, 159.

13 Paretsky, , Indemnity Only, in Paretsky, , V. I. Warshawski (London: Penguin Books, 1993), 5236, 67–69Google Scholar.

14 See Du Bois, W. E. B., The Souls of Black Folk [1903], in The Oxford W. E. B. Du Bois Reader, ed. Sundquist, Eric J. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 102Google Scholar: “It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity,” Du Bois wrote in The Souls of Black Folk. “One ever feels his two-ness, – an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder.”

15 Jenkins, David, “Profile of Chester Himes” (from Nova (Jan. 1971)), in Fabre, and Skinner, , Conversations with Chester Himes, 95102, 99Google Scholar.

16 In Himes's novel, the search for the falcon is replaced by attempts to secure a trunk of what turns out to be fool's gold. It was Stephen F. Milliken who first noted that most of Himes's detective novels follow the plot pattern of The Maltese Falcon: “An assorted group of sinister Harlem characters are searching for Object X. Most of them don't actually know what Object X is (it could very well turn out to be Dashiell Hammett's Maltese falcon), but they assume it's valuable, or otherwise the other people looking for it wouldn't be looking for it, and they proceed to kill everyone who gets in their way.” See Milliken, Stephen F., Chester Himes: A Critical Appraisal (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1976), 217Google Scholar. 16 Berry, Jay R. makes the same point in “Chester Himes and the Hard-Boiled Tradition”, in Silet, Charles L. P., ed., The Critical Response to Chester Himes (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 117–26, 122Google Scholar.

17 Fred Pfeil, “Policiers Noirs”, in Silet, 37–40, 40.

18 Crawford, Norlisha, “Good, Bad, and Beautiful: Chester Himes's Femmes in Harlem,” NWSA Journal, 18 (2006), 193217CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Ibid., 214.

20 Hammett, The Maltese Falcon, 25.

21 Himes, , A Rage in Harlem, in Himes, The Harlem Cycle, Volume I (Edinburgh: Payback Press, 1999), 3177, 4Google Scholar.

22 West, Nathaniel, The Day of the Locust, in The Collected Works of Nathaniel West (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), 7154, 21Google Scholar.

23 Miller, Lynn I., “Sara Paretsky: Collaring White Collar Crime,” Crescent Blues, 2, 6 (1999)Google Scholar accessed at www.crescentblues.com/2_6issue/paretsky.shtml, 19 Sept. 2005.

24 See Cassuto, Leonard, Hard-Boiled Sentimentality: The Secret History of American Crime Stories (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 5153Google Scholar, on Hammett's handling of the idea of the trust. On competitive individualism in relation to collective action and criminal conspiracy see Hamilton, Cynthia S., Western and Hard-Boiled Detective Fiction in America: From High Noon to Midnight (London: Macmillan, 1987), 3032CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Eburne, Jonathan P., Surrealism and the Art of Crime (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 246–48Google Scholar. Oliver Belas argues that the writing of The End of a Primitive sensitized Himes to the absurdity of his condition and to the insufficiency of the genre of the protest novel, preparing the way to a shift toward crime fiction as an alternative structuring genre. Belas makes his case through Himes's comments about his writing rather than through a detailed examination either of the generic conventions associated with these genres or of Himes's novels themselves. See Belas, Oliver, “Chester Himes's The End of a Primitive: Exile, Exhaustion, Dissolution,” Journal of American Studies, 44, 2 (2010), 377–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Eburne, 247. Nonetheless, as Stacy I. Morgan argues, social realism possessed more elasticity than this suggests. See Morgan, Stacy I., Rethinking Social Realism: African American Art and Literature, 1930–1953 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004)Google Scholar, 248.

27 Baldwin, James, “Everybody's Protest Novel,” in Baldwin, Notes of a Native Son (London: Corgi Books, 1974), 917, 17Google Scholar.

28 Himes, Chester, My Life of Absurdity: The Autobiography of Chester Himes, 111.Google Scholar

29 Wright famously commented that after seeing the reviews of his collection of stories, Uncle Tom's Children, he realized that he had “written a book which even bankers' daughters could read and weep over and feel good about.” He determined that his next book, which would be Native Son, “would be so hard and deep that they would have to face it without the consolation of tears.” See Wright, Richard, “How Bigger was Born”, in , Wright, Native Son (New York: Perennial Classic, Harper & Row, 1966), xxviiGoogle Scholar.

30 Himes, A Rage in Harlem, 119.

31 Himes remarked that Hammett “had an extraordinary gift for telling stories, while describing at the same time his milieu, and the corruption of American society.” Fabre 1983 interview, 141.

32 Andrew Pepper suggests that the racial politics of Himes's Harlem make the social dislocations more extreme than those exposed by Hammett. See Pepper, Andrew, The Contemporary American Crime Novel: Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Class (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000), 113Google Scholar.

33 Himes, A Rage in Harlem, 151–52.

34 Himes, My Life of Absurdity, 120–21. The novel was written under the working title of “The Five Cornered Square.” Although written to be published in translation for La Série Noire, it was first published in English as a Gold Medal Book in 1957. It was issued in France as La reine des pommes by Gallimard in 1958. Some later editions were published under the title A Rage in Harlem.

35 See Hamilton, Western and Hard-Boiled Detective Fiction, 128–35, on the “exchange mentality” and on the desire for and power of narrative construction.

36 Paretsky, Indemnity Only, 62–63.

37 Sara Paretsky interviewed by Hendry, Kim, “Guns and Roses,” Marxism Today (July 1990), 4547, 45Google Scholar.

38 Sara Paretsky quoted in ibid., 45. See also Walton and Jones, Detective Agency, 174–81, on violence and gender politics in detective fiction.

39 Hammett, The Maltese Falcon, 205.

40 On Paretsky's view of female passivity see Horsley, Lee, Twentieth-Century Crime Fiction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 265–66Google Scholar.

41 Paretsky, Indemnity Only, 63.

42 See Evans's, Sara M.discussion of consciousness-raising on the subject of rape and violence against women in second-wave feminism in Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America at Century's End (New York: Free Press, 2004), 4849Google Scholar.

43 Paretsky, Indemnity Only, 108. See Walton and Jones, 176, on detective fiction as “revenge fantasy.”

44 Himes, A Rage in Harlem, 79.

45 Ibid., 90.

46 Ibid., 102.

47 See James Sallis, “In America's Black Heartland: The Achievement of Chester Himes,” in Silet, The Critical Response to Chester Himes, 127–37, 129, original emphasis; Angus Calder, “Chester Himes and the Art of Fiction,” in ibid., 101–16, 109; and Raymond Nelson, “Domestic Harlem: The Detective Fiction of Chester Himes,” in ibid., 53–63, 58.

48 Himes, A Rage in Harlem, 103.

49 Ibid., 116.

50 Ibid., 119.

51 Ibid., 127.

52 West, The Day of the Locust, 65, 76, 153.

53 Williams, John A. and Williams, Lori, Dear Chester, Dear John: Letters between Chester Himes and John A. Williams (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2008), 198, 218Google Scholar.

54 Soitos, Stephen F., The Blues Detective: A Study of African American Detective Fiction (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 142Google Scholar.

55 Hammett, The Maltese Falcon, 67.

56 See Hamilton, Western and Hard-Boiled Detective Fiction, 139–42.

57 Himes, A Rage in Harlem, 71.

58 West, The Day of the Locust, 68.

59 Skinner, Robert E., Two Guns from Harlem: The Detective Fiction of Chester Himes (Bowling Green: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1989), 42Google Scholar.

60 Pepper, The Contemporary American Crime Novel, 113–14.

61 Michael Denning, “Topographies of Violence: Chester Himes' Harlem Domestic Novels,” in Silet, The Critical Response to Chester Himes, 155–68, 164.

62 Himes, A Rage in Harlem, 60–61.

63 “And then I thought of some of our loudmouthed leaders urging our vulnerable soul brothers on to getting themselves killed, and thought further that all unorganized violence is like a blind man with a pistol.” Himes, Chester, Blind Man with a Pistol, in Himes, , The Harlem Cycle, Volume III (Edinburgh: Payback Press, 1997), 191379, 193Google Scholar.

64 Williams and Williams, Dear Chester, Dear John, 65, original emphasis.

65 Himes, A Rage in Harlem, 116–17.

66 Denning, 162.

67 West, The Day of the Locust, 95.

68 Ibid., 96.

69 See Maureen Liston, “Chester Himes: ‘A Nigger’,” in Silet, 83–92, 86; Nelson, “Domestic Harlem,” 59; Denning, 155.

70 Soitos talks about this dynamic within Himes's fiction. See Soitos, The Blues Detective, 142.

71 Lee Horsley refers to Paretsky's “ethic of responsibility” and contrasts it with Spade's personal code. See Horsley, Twentieth Century Crime Fiction, 266.

72 For more on Paretsky's mapping of Chicago and her vision of a safer, more feminized urban space where community values replaced unchecked individualism see Kinsman, Margaret, “A Question of Visibility: Paretsky and Chicago,” in Klein, Kathleen Gregory, ed., Women Times Three: Writers, Detectives, Readers (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Press, 1995), 2226Google Scholar, and Schmid, David, “Imagining Safe Urban Space: The Contribution of Detective Fiction to Radical Geography,” Antipode, 27, 3 (1995), 260–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 See Naremore's, James brilliant essay, “American Film Noir: The History of an Idea,” Film Quarterly, 49, 2 (1995–96), 1228, 22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 As Naremore, 22, argues, subtle differences exist despite shared points of departure and admired attributes of such writing. Belas refers to Naremore, but without a full appreciation of the way Naremore charts the differing values placed on such writers when appropriated by the surrealists and subsequently by the existentialists. See also Belas, 382.

75 Eburne, Jonathan P., “The Transatlantic Mysteries of Paris: Surrealism and the Série Noire,” in Eburne, Surrealism and the Art of Crime (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 244–65Google Scholar.

76 Broschke-Davis, Ursula, Paris without Regret: James Baldwin, Kenny Clarke, Chester Himes, and Donald Byrd (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1994), 84Google Scholar.

77 Jonathan P. Eburne, Surrealism and the Art of Crime, 246–48, 254–62.

78 Williams and Williams, Dear Chester, Dear John, 217.

79 Breton, André, Manifestoes of Surrealism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972), 26Google Scholar.

80 Ibid., 14.

81 Stansell, Amanda, “Surrealist Racial Politics at the Borders of ‘Reason’: Whiteness, Primitivism and Negritude,” in Raymond Spiteri and Donald LaCoss, eds., Surrealism, Politics, and Culture (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), 111–26, 112Google Scholar.

82 Ibid., 114.

83 Bell, Kevin, “Assuming the Position: Fugitivity and Futurity in the Work of Chester Himes,” Modern Fiction Studies, 51 (2005), 846–72, 865CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 Ishmael Reed, a self-confessed fan of Himes's work, paid tribute to the effectiveness of his “comic aggression” in exposing the “social and political daydreams” of Himes's world. See Ishmael Reed, “The Best of Himes, the Worst of Himes” (1991), reprinted in Silet, The Critical Response to Chester Himes, 43–5, 44. Elsewhere, noting Himes's advice to “think the unthinkable,” Reed adds, “I think that's what I'm doing in my work.” See interview with Bruce Dick (1993) in Conversations with Ishmael Reed (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1995), 344–56, 352. Pim Higginson sees Himes's work as providing a model for African writers: “He shows the inherent radicality of writing without a purpose other than itself, writing that emphasizes the insistent modernity of its setting (Harlem is not the Antebellum South), writing that is, in the eyes of a Western tradition of recuperative instrumentalization of the other's cultural production, frivolous.” See Higginson, Pim, The Noir Atlantic: Chester Himes and the Birth of the Francophone African Crime Novel (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 27. For Higginson, it is not the surrealism, which she sees as politically compromised in relation to colonial politics, but the pleasure in the writing itself that is politically potent.

85 Himes, A Rage in Harlem, 135.

86 Jean-Paul Sartre, “Black Orpheus,” trans. John MacCombie, Massachusetts Review, 6 (1964–65), 13–52, 13.

87 Morrison, Toni, “Romancing the Shadow,” in Morrison, Playing in the Dark (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 2959, 52Google Scholar.

88 Schmid, David, “Chester Himes and the Institutionalization of Multicultural Detective Fiction,” in Gosselin, Adrienne J., ed., Multicultural Detective Fiction (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1999), 292–94Google Scholar.

89 Nathaniel West, letters to Edmund Wilson and F. Scott Fitzgerald (April 1939), quoted in Martin, Jay, Nathaniel West: The Art of His Life (New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., 1970), 334Google Scholar.

90 Sara Paretsky, “Introduction” to The Maltese Falcon, 9.