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“Students Who Have the Irish Tongue”: The Gaidhealtachd, Education, and State Formation in Covenanted Scotland, 1638–1651

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 January 2021

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Abstract

This article examines the Scottish Covenanters’ initiatives to revamp educational provision in the Gaidhealtachd, the Gaelic-speaking portions of Scotland, from the beginning of the Scottish Revolution in 1638 to the Cromwellian conquest of Scotland in 1651. Scholars have explored in detail the range of educational schemes pursued by central governments in the seventeenth century to “civilize” the Gaidhealtachd, but few have engaged in an analysis of Covenanting schemes and how they differed from previous endeavors. While the Statutes of Iona are probably the best-known initiative to civilize the Gaidhealtachd and extirpate the Gaelic language, Covenanter schemes both adapted such policies and further innovated in order to serve the needs of a nascent confessional state. In particular, Covenanting schemes represented a unique and pragmatic way to address the Gaidhealtachd's educational deficiencies because they sought practical accommodation of the Gaelic language and preferred the matriculation of Gaelophone scholars into the universities. These measures not only represented a new strategy for integrating the Gaelic periphery into the Scottish state but were also notable for the ways in which they incorporated Gaelophone students into Scotland's higher education orbit—a stark departure from the educational situation in Ireland. By drawing on underutilized manuscript and printed sources, this article examines how the Covenanters refurbished education in the Gaidhealtachd and posits that the Covenanter schemes represented a key facet of the broader process of state formation in 1640s Scotland.

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Original Manuscript
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Journal of British Studies , Volume 60 , Issue 1 , January 2021 , pp. 66 - 87
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Copyright © The North American Conference on British Studies, 2021

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31 Reid, “‘Ane Uniformitie,’” 16–23; Howard Hotson, “‘A Generall Reformation of Common Learning’ and Its Reception in the English-Speaking World, 1560–1642,” in The Reception of Continental Reformation in Britain, ed. Polly Ha and Patrick Collinson (Oxford, 2010), 193–228, at 195–200.

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33 Salvatore Cipriano, “Seminaries of Identity: The Universities of Scotland and Ireland in the Age of British Revolution” (PhD diss., Fordham University, 2018), chap. 3.

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41 See Ethan Howard Shagan, “Constructing Discord: Ideology, Propaganda, and English Responses to the Irish Rebellion of 1641,” Journal of British Studies 36, no. 1 (1997): 4–34.

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44 See Durkacz, Decline of the Celtic Languages, 10.

45 Macinnes, Clanship, Commerce and the House of Stuart, chap. 1; Dawson, “Calvinism and the Gaidhealtachd,” 231–33; Withers, Gaelic in Scotland, chaps. 2–3. See also Stroh, Gaelic Scotland, 36–37; Keith M. Brown, Noble Power in Scotland from the Reformation to the Revolution (Edinburgh, 2011), chap. 2.

46 Commissioners’ Report Regarding Glasgow University, 1641, Glasgow University Archives 26754, fol. 6r. The report was based on Glasgow principal John Strang's petition for additional divinity professors and Robert Baillie's proposal for new professorships and bursars. See Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 2:450–1; Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 262; Baillie, Letters and Journals, 1:399–400; Commission for Visiting the Universities and Colleges of Scotland, Evidence, Oral and Documentary, Taken and Received by the Commissioners Appointed by His Majesty George IV [. . .] for Visiting the Universities of Scotland, 4 vols. (London, 1837), 2:255–56.

47 MacDonald, Missions to the Gaels, 33–34; Ó Maolalaigh, Forsyth, and MacCoinnich, “Clans and the University;” Iain G. MacDonald, Clerics and Clansmen: The Diocese of Argyll between the Twelfth and Sixteenth Centuries (Leiden, 2013), chap. 5; Roibeard Ó Maolalaigh, Katherine Forsyth, and Aonghas MacCoinnich, “15th & 16th Centuries,” The Gaelic Story at the University of Glasgow, accessed 1 October 2018, https://sgeulnagaidhlig.ac.uk/15th-16th-c/?lang=en.

48 Letter, Argyll to Principal John Strang of Glasgow, 16 February 1643, Glasgow University Archives 43183; Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:97, 101; J. R. N. Macphail, ed., Highland Papers, 4 vols. (Edinburgh, 1914–1934), 1:134. See also Cosmo Innes, ed., The Book of the Thanes of Cawdor: A Series of Papers Selected from the Charter Room at Cawdor, 1236–1742 (Edinburgh, 1859), xxxi; Janay Nugent, “‘Your Louing Childe and Foster’: The Fostering of Archie Campbell of Argyll, 1633–39,” in Children and Youth in Premodern Scotland, ed. Janay Nugent and Elizabeth Ewan (Woodbridge, 2015), 47–64. On Argyll's time at St. Andrews, see Allan I. Macinnes, The British Confederate: Archibald Campbell, Marquess of Argyll, c. 1607–1661 (Edinburgh, 2011), 66–68.

49 Baillie, Letters and Journals, 2:47; MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:9, 17.

50 Dictionary of the Scots Language Online, s.v., “Bursar, Burser, n.,” accessed 3 March 2017, http://www.dsl.ac.uk/entry/dost/bursar#; John Kerr, Scottish Education: School and University—From Early Times to 1908 with an Addendum 1908–1913 (Cambridge, 1913), 55–56; Hilde de Ridder-Symoens, “Management and Resources,” in de Ridder-Symoens, Universities in Early Modern Europe, 154–209, at 188.

51 See J. D. Marwick, ed., Extracts from the Records of the Burgh of Glasgow, A.D. 1630–1662 (Glasgow, 1881), 16–17, 43–44; Cosmo Innes, ed., Fasti Aberdonenses: Selections from the Records of the University and King's College of Aberdeen, 1494–1854 (Aberdeen, 1854), 89–90, 112, 120–30, 149–54, 207–10, 248–54, 272–76. For registers of bursars at Glasgow and St. Andrews, see Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:257–60; Faculty of Arts Bursars’ Book, 1637–1651, UYUY412, fol. 113r–27v, St. Andrews University Library.

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54 Dawson, “Calvinism and the Gaidhealtachd,” 243–45. See also James Kirk, ed., The Records of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, 1589–1596, 1640–1649 (Edinburgh, 1977), 175, 182.

55 RPS A1641/8/8.

56 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 327.

57 Synod of Moray Minutes, 1623–1644, CH2/271/1, pp. 206, 214, National Records of Scotland, Edinburgh (hereafter NRS).

58 Synod of Moray Minutes, 1623–1644, NRS CH2/271/1, p. 227.

59 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:39, 47.

60 MacTavish, 1:47–48.

61 MacTavish, 1:66–67, 79.

62 MacTavish, 1:95; Hew Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ: The Succession of Ministers in the Church of Scotland from the Reformation, 7 vols. (Edinburgh, 1915–1928), 4:5.

63 On this point, see Macinnes, “Scottish Gaeldom,” 62.

64 Nigel M. de S. Cameron, ed., Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology (Downers Grove, 1993), 401.

65 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 327.

66 See William Fraser, ed., The Sutherland Book, 3 vols. (Edinburgh, 1892), 2:357, 359; MacCoinnich, “Where and How Was Gaelic Written,” 335n15.

67 Synod of Moray Minutes, 1623–1644, NRS CH2/271/1, p. 239.

68 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:11–12; MacKinnon, “Education in Argyll and the Isles,” 47.

69 MacTavish, 1:72–73.

70 Spurlock, “Confessionalization and Clan Cohesion,” 186–88. See also Macinnes, Clanship, Commerce and the House of Stuart, chap. 4.

71 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 351.

72 MacKinnon, “Education in Argyll and the Isles,” 48.

73 RPS 1644/6/211.

74 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 419–20.

75 RPS 1645/11/185.

76 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 449; Alexander F. Mitchell and James Christie, eds., The Records of the Commissions of the General Assemblies of the Church of Scotland, 3 vols. (Edinburgh, 1892–1909), 1:70–72; MacDonald, Missions to the Gaels, 133–40.

77 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 449.

78 Macinnes, “Scottish Gaeldom,” 62–63.

79 On the Engagement controversy, see Stewart, Rethinking the Scottish Revolution, 219–21, chap. 6; David Stevenson, Revolution and Counter-revolution in Scotland, 1644–1651 (London, 1977), chaps. 3–4.

80 For a recent, comprehensive treatment of this scheme, see Reid, “‘Ane Uniformitie,’” 32–41. See also Hugh Kearney, Scholars and Gentlemen: Universities and Society in Pre-Industrial Britain, 1500–1700 (Ithaca, 1970), 131–33; Christine M. Shepherd, “A National System of University Education in Seventeenth-Century Scotland?,” in Scottish Universities: Distinctiveness and Diversity, ed. Jennifer J. Carter and Donald J. Withrington (Edinburgh, 1992), 26–33.

81 Register of Acts Agreed Upon by the Commissioners of the Scottish University, 1647–1649, Glasgow University Archives 26790, pp. 2, 7.

82 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:106, 114–15, 117.

83 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 510.

84 Peterkin, 510.

85 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:123.

86 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 510.

87 Peterkin, 511.

88 Mitchell and Christie, Records of the Commissions, 1:70–72, 74, 173–74. See also Allan I. Macinnes, “The Impact of the Civil Wars and Interregnum: Political Disruption and Social Change within Scottish Gaeldom,” in Economy and Society in Scotland and Ireland, 1500–1939, ed. Rosalind Mitchison and Peter Roebuck (Edinburgh, 1988), 58–69, at 58–61.

89 Macinnes, British Confederate, 225, 245–46.

90 Mitchell and Christie, Records of the Commissions, 1:252; Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 520.

91 Synod of Moray Minutes, 1644–1688, NRS CH2/271/2, p. 92; Mitchell and Christie, Records of the Commissions, 2:118–19; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 6:460.

92 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 515. For the scheme's execution, see William Cramond, ed., Extracts from the Records of the Synod of Moray (Elgin, 1906), 92–93, 107; William Mackay, ed., Records of the Presbyteries of Inverness and Dingwall, 1643–1688 (Edinburgh, 1896), 162–63, 164, 166–67, 169, 178, 216–18; Stuart, John, ed., Extracts from the Presbytery Book of Strathbogie, A.D. 1631–1654 (Aberdeen, 1843), 174Google Scholar.

93 George R. Kinloch, ed., Ecclesiastical Records: Selections from the Minutes of the Presbyteries of St. Andrews and Cupar, 1641–1698 (Edinburgh, 1837), 36, 38–39.

94 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:124–25, 135–36.

95 Dalkeith Kirk Session Minutes, 13 March 1649, NRS CH2/84/1, fol. 44.

96 Mitchell and Christie, Records of the Commissions, 2:124; Kirk, Records of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, 273, 283, 294; Langley, Chris R., ed., The Minutes of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, 1648–1659 (Woodbridge, 2016), 25Google Scholar.

97 Mitchell and Christie, Records of the Commissions, 2:266–67.

98 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:128–30, 133–34, 139.

99 RPS 1649/5/115.

100 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:142–43.

101 MacTavish, 1:143, 155.

102 See, for example, Heinz Schilling, “Confessional Europe,” in Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, vol. 2, Visions, Programs, and Outcomes, ed. Thomas A. Brady, Heiko A. Oberman, and James D. Tracy (Leiden, 1995), 641–81, at 642–44, 647–66, 658–50.

103 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 552–53.

104 Dalkeith Presbytery Minutes, May 1649, NRS CH2/424/3, fol. 313; Dalkeith Kirk Sessions Minutes, 17 March 1650, NRS CH2/84/1, fol. 56v.

105 Peebles Presbytery Minutes, January 1650, NRS CH2/295/4, fol. 7v.

106 Canongate Kirk Session Minutes, October 1649, NRS CH2/122/4, fol. 28.

107 Kinloch, Ecclesiastical Records: Minutes of St. Andrews and Cupar, 49.

108 Dunfermline Kirk Session Minutes, 9 April 1650, NRS CH2/592/1/1, fol. 109v; Dunfermline Presbytery Minutes, 29 May 1650, NRS CH2/105/1/1, fol. 125.

109 Lanark Presbytery Minutes, 12 June 1651, NRS CH2/234/1, fol. 478; Tealing Kirk Session Minutes, 3 August 1651, NRS CH2/352/1, fol. 57.

110 Brechin Presbytery Minutes, April 1649, NRS CH2/40/1, fol. 104.

111 Durkan, Scottish Schools and Schoolmasters, 272–73.

112 See Withers, Gaelic in Scotland, chaps. 4–5.

113 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 510; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:5–6, 9; Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:103.

114 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 510.

115 Fasti Aberdonenses, 514; Anderson, P. J., ed., Roll of Alumni in Arts of the University and King's College of Aberdeen 1596–1860 (Aberdeen, 1900), 17Google Scholar.

116 Canongate Kirk Session Minutes, October 1649, NRS CH2/122/4, fol. 19.

117 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:153.

118 Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:34; Laing, David, ed., A Catalogue of the Graduates of the Faculties of Arts, Divinity, and Law, of the University of Edinburgh, since Its Foundation (Edinburgh, 1858), 64Google Scholar.

119 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 326. On St. Mary's and the Melvillian reforms, see Reid, Steven J., Humanism and Calvinism: Andrew Melville and the Universities of Scotland, 1560–1625 (Aldershot, 2011), 185–93Google Scholar.

120 Baxter, Charles, ed., Selections from the Minutes of the Synod of Fife, 1640–1687 (Edinburgh, 1837), 162Google Scholar.

121 Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:5–6; Kinloch, Ecclesiastical Records: Minutes of St. Andrews and Cupar, 38–39.

122 Baxter, Minutes of the Synod of Fife, 165.

123 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:159 and 159n1; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:6.

124 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:153.

125 Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:29; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:9.

126 Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:29; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:16.

127 Register of Acts Agreed Upon by the Commissioners of the Scottish Universities, 1647–1649, Glasgow University Archives 26790, p. 4.

128 MacKinnon, “Education in Argyll and the Isles,” 50.

129 See Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, vol. 4.

130 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:185–86, 208, 222–23, 2:3, 15, 35, 40–41; Roibeard Ó Maolalaigh, Katherine Forsyth, and Aonghas MacCoinnich, “17th Century—The Church and Education,” The Gaelic Story at the University of Glasgow, accessed 30 September 2018, https://sgeulnagaidhlig.ac.uk/17thc-argyll-the-synod/?lang=en; Withers, Gaelic in Scotland, 33.

131 Withers, Gaelic in Scotland, 34–37; Withers, Gaelic Scotland, 116–36.