Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T21:06:48.328Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The early development of the kidney and implications for future health

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 May 2010

W. E. Hoy*
Affiliation:
Centre for Chronic Disease, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
J. R. Ingelfinger
Affiliation:
Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA; Pediatric Nephrology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston,MA, USA
S. Hallan
Affiliation:
Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
M. D. Hughson
Affiliation:
Department of Pathology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, USA
S. A. Mott
Affiliation:
Centre for Chronic Disease, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
J. F. Bertram
Affiliation:
Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
*
*Address for correspondence: Professor W. E. Hoy, Centre for Chronic Disease, Health Sciences Building Level 8, Royal Brisbane & Women’s Hospital, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia 4029. (Email w.hoy@uq.edu.au)

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Reviews
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and the International Society for Developmental Origins of Health and Disease 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Hoy, WE, Hughson, MD, Douglas-Denton, R, Bertram, JF, Amman, K. Nephron number, hypertension, renal disease and renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16, 25572564.Google Scholar
2.Moritz, KM, Cullen-McEwen, LA. Kidney development and fetal programming. Early Life origins of health and disease. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2006; 573, 130143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3.Bagby, SP. Maternal nutrition, low nephron number and hypertension in later life: pathways of nutritional programming. J Nutr. 2007; 137, 10661072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.Hoy, WE, Bertram, JF, Denton, RD, et al. Nephron number, glomerular volume, renal disease and hypertension. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2008; 17, 258265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5.Dotsch, J, Plank, C, Amann, K, Ingelfinger, J. The implications of fetal programming of glomerular number and renal function. J Mol Med. 2009; 87, 841848.Google Scholar
6.Hinchliffe, SA, Sargent, PH, Howard, CV, Chan, YF, van Velzen, D. Human intrauterine renal growth expressed in absolute number of glomeruli assessed by the disector method and Cavalieri principle. Lab Invest. 1991; 64, 777784.Google ScholarPubMed
7.Ekblom, P. Renal development. In The Kidney: Physiology and Pathophysiology (eds. Seldin DW, Giebisch G), 1992; pp. 475501. Raven: New York.Google Scholar
8.Saxen, L. Organogenesis of the Kidney, 1987. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9.Woolf, AS. Molecular bases of human kidney malformation. Pediatr nephrol. 1997; 22, 373376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10.Vize, PD, Woolf, AS, Bard, JBL. The Kidney: From Normal Development to Congenital Disease, 2003; Academic Press: London.Google Scholar
11.Madsen, KM, Tisher, CC. Structural-functional relationships along the distal nephron. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 1986; 250, F1F15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12.Hoy, WE, Douglas-Denton, RN, Hughson, M, et al. A stereological study of glomerular number and volume: preliminary findings in a multiracial study of kidneys at autopsy. Kidney Int. 2003; 63, S31S37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Goldenberg, RL, Culhane, JF, Iams, JD, Romero, R. Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth. Lancet. 2008; 371, 7584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Laws, P, Abeywardana, S, Walker, J, Sullivan, E. Australia’s Mothers and Babies 2007. AIHW National Perinatal Statistics Unit: Sydney.Google Scholar
15.Rodriguez, MM, Gomez, AH, Abitbol, CL, et al. Histomorphometric analysis of postnatal glomerulogenesis in extremely preterm infants. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2004; 7, 1725.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Gubhaju, L, Sutherland, MR, Yoder, BA, et al. Is nephrogenesis affected by preterm birth? Studies in a non-human primate model. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2009; 297, F1668F1677.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Clark, AT, Bertram, JF. Molecular regulation of nephron endowment. Am J Physiol. 1999; 276(4 Pt 2), F485F497.Google Scholar
18.Dressler, GR. The cellular basis of kidney development. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2006; 22, 509529.Google Scholar
19.Moritz, KM, Wintour, EM, Black, MJ, Bertram, JF, Caruana, G. Factors influencing mammalian kidney development: implications for health in adult life. Adv Anat Embryol Cell Biol. 2008; 196, 178.Google Scholar
20.Kobayashi, A, Valerius, MT, Mugford, JW, et al. Six2 defines and regulates a multipotent self-renewing nephron progenitor population throughout mammalian kidney development. Cell Stem Cell. 2008; 3, 169181.Google Scholar
21.Sims-Lucas, S, Cullen-McEwen, L, Eswarakumar, VP, et al. Deletion of Frs2alpha from the ureteric epithelium causes renal hypoplasia. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2009; 297, F1208F1219.Google Scholar
22.Stuart, RO, Bush, KT, Nigam, SK. Changes in gene expression patterns in the ureteric bud and metanephric mesenchyme in models of kidney development. Kidney Int. 2003; 64, 19972008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Schwab, K, Patterson, LT, Aronow, BJ, et al. A catalogue of gene expression in the developing kidney. Kidney Int. 2003; 64, 15881604.Google Scholar
24.Challen, G, Gardiner, B, Caruana, G, et al. Temporal and spatial transcriptional programs in murine kidney development. Physiol Genomics. 2005; 23, 159171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.Martinez, G, Georgas, K, Challen, GA, et al. Definition and spatial annotation of the dynamic secretome during early kidney development. Dev Dyn. 2006; 235, 17091719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Valerius, MT, Patterson, LT, Witte, DP, Potter, SS. Microarray analysis of novel cell lines representing two stages of metanephric mesenchyme differentiation. Mech Dev. 2002; 112, 219232.Google Scholar
27.Takasato, M, Osafune, K, Matsumoto, Y, et al. Identification of kidney mesenchymal genes by a combination of microarray analysis and Sall1-GFP knockin mice. Mech Dev. 2004; 121, 547557.Google Scholar
28.Schmidt-Ott, KM, Yang, J, Chen, X, et al. Novel regulators of kidney development from the tips of the ureteric bud. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16, 19932002.Google Scholar
29.Caruana, G, Young, RJ, Bertram, JF. Imaging the embryonic kidney. Nephron Exp Nephrol. 2006; 103, e62e68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Brunskill, EW, Aronow, BJ, Georgas, K, et al. Atlas of gene expression in the developing kidney at microanatomic resolution. Dev Cell. 2008; 15, 781791.Google Scholar
31.Moore, MW, Klein, RD, Farinas, I, et al. Renal and neuronal abnormalities in mice lacking GDNF. Nature. 1996; 382, 7679.Google Scholar
32.Pichel, JG, Shen, L, Sheng, HZ, et al. Defects in enteric innervation and kidney development in mice lacking GDNF. Nature. 1996; 382, 7376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Suvanto, P, Hiltunen, JO, Arumae, U, et al. Localization of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) mRNA in embryonic rat by in situ hybridization. Eur J Neurosci. 1996; 8, 816822.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34.Cullen-McEwen, LA, Drago, J, Bertram, JF. Nephron endowment in glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) heterozygous mice. Kidney Int. 2001; 60, 3136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Revest, JM, Spencer-Dene, B, Kerr, K, et al. Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2-IIIb acts upstream of Shh and Fgf4 and is required for limb bud maintenance but not for the induction of Fgf8, Fgf10, Msx1, or Bmp4. Dev Biol. 2001; 231, 4762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Ohuchi, H, Hori, Y, Yamasaki, M, et al. FGF10 acts as a major ligand for FGF receptor 2 IIIb in mouse multi-organ development. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2000; 277, 643649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Cacalano, G, Farinas, I, Wang, LC, et al. GFRalpha1 is an essential receptor component for GDNF in the developing nervous system and kidney. Neuron. 1998; 21, 5362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.McCright, B, Gao, X, Shen, L, et al. Defects in development of the kidney, heart and eye vasculature in mice homozygous for a hypomorphic Notch2 mutation. Development. 2001; 128, 491502.Google Scholar
39.Yu, J, Carroll, TJ, McMahon, AP. Sonic hedgehog regulates proliferation and differentiation of mesenchymal cells in the mouse metanephric kidney. Development. 2002; 129, 53015312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Liu, J, Zhang, L, Wang, D, et al. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia, kidney agenesis and cardiac defects associated with Slit3-deficiency in mice. Mech Dev. 2003; 120, 10591070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41.Majumdar, A, Vainio, S, Kispert, A, McMahon, J, McMahon, AP. Wnt11 and Ret/Gdnf pathways cooperate in regulating ureteric branching during metanephric kidney development. Development. 2003; 130, 31753185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42.Clarke, JC, Patel, SR, Raymond, RM Jr, et al. Regulation of c-Ret in the developing kidney is responsive to Pax2 gene dosage. Hum Mol Genet. 2006; 15, 34203428.Google Scholar
43.Dziarmaga, A, Eccles, M, Goodyer, P. Suppression of ureteric bud apoptosis rescues nephron endowment and adult renal function in Pax2 mutant mice. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006; 17, 15681575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44.Sims-Lucas, S, Caruana, G, Dowling, J, Kett, MM, Bertram, JF. Augmented and accelerated nephrogenesis in TGF-beta2 heterozygous mutant mice. Pediatr Res. 2008; 63, 607612.Google Scholar
45.Zhang, Z, Quinlan, J, Hoy, W, et al. A common RET variant is associated with reduced newborn kidney size and function. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008; 19, 20272034.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46.Quinlan, J, Lemire, M, Hudson, T, et al. A common variant of the PAX2 gene is associated with reduced newborn kidney size. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007; 18, 19151921.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Barker, DJ, Osmond, C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet. 1986; 1, 10771081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Barker, DJ, Bull, AR, Osmond, C, Simmonds, SJ. Fetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. BMJ. 1990; 301, 259262.Google Scholar
49.Brenner, BM, Chertow, GM. Congenital oligonephropathy and the etiology of adult hypertension and progressive renal injury. Am J Kidney Dis. 1994; 23, 171175.Google Scholar
50.Singh, RR, Moritz, KM, Bertram, JF, Cullen-McEwen, LA. Effects of dexamethasone exposure on rat metanephric development: in vitro and in vivo studies. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2007; 293, F548F554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Hoppe, CC, et al. Effects of dietary protein restriction on nephron number in the mouse. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007; 292, R1768R1774.Google Scholar
52.Dickinson, H, et al. Maternal dexamethasone treatment at midgestation reduces nephron number and alters renal gene expression in the fetal spiny mouse. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007; 292, R453R461.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53.Moritz, KM, Cullen-McEwen, LA. Kidney development and fetal programming. In Early Life Origins of Health and Disease (eds. Wintour EM and Owens JA), Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biolgoy, vol. 573, 2006; pp. 130144. Springer Landes Bioscience: USA.Google Scholar
54.Nijland, MJ, Nathanielsz, PW. Developmental programming of the kidney. In Early Life Origins of Human Health and Disease (eds. JP Newnham and MG Ross), 2009; pp. 133141. Karger: Basel.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
55.Gray, SP, Kenna, K, Bertram, JF, et al. Repeated ethanol exposure during late gestation decreases nephron endowment in fetal sheep. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008; 295, R568R574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Gray, SP, Denton, K, Bertram, JF, Moritz, KM. Acute prenatal alcohol exposure results in growth restriction, lower nephron endowment and elevated blood pressure in male rat offspring. Nephrology. 2008; 13(Suppl 3), A205.Google Scholar
57.Dodic, M, May, CN, Wintour, EM, Coghlan, JP. An early prenatal exposure to excess glucocorticoid leads to hypertensive offspring in sheep. Clin Sci (Lond). 1998; 94, 149155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Wintour, EM, Moritz, KM, Johnson, K, et al. Reduced nephron number in adult sheep, hypertensive as a result of prenatal glucocorticoid treatment. J Physiol. 2003; 549, 929935.Google Scholar
59.Woods, LL, Ingelfinger, JR, Nyengaard, JR, Rasch, R. Maternal protein restriction suppresses the newborn renin-angiotensin system and programs adult hypertension in rats. Pediatr Res. 2001; 49, 460467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60.Woods, LL, Weeks, DA, Rasch, R. Programming of adult blood pressure by maternal protein restriction: role of nephrogenesis. Kidney Int. 2004; 65, 13391348.Google Scholar
61.Zimanyi, MA, Bertram, JF, Black, MJ. Does a nephron deficit in rats predispose to salt-sensitive hypertension? Kidney Blood Press Res. 2004; 27, 239247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Hoppe, CC, Evans, RG, Moritz, KM, et al. Combined prenatal and postnatal protein restriction influences adult kidney structure, function, and arterial pressure. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007; 292, R462R469.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63.Wlodek, ME, Mibus, A, Tan, A, et al. Normal lactational environment restores nephron endowment and prevents hypertension after placental restriction in the rat. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007; 18, 16881696.Google Scholar
64.Moritz, KM, Mazzuca, MQ, Siebel, AL, et al. Uteroplacental insufficiency causes a nephron deficit, modest renal insufficiency but no hypertension with ageing in female rats. J Physiol. 2009; 587(Pt 11), 26352646.Google Scholar
65.Harrison, M, Langley-Evans, SC. Intergenerational programming of impaired nephrogenesis and hypertension in rats following maternal protein restriction during pregnancy. Br J Nutr. 2009; 101, 10201030.Google Scholar
66.National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39, S1S246.Google Scholar
67.Fogo, AB. Mechanisms of progression of chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol. 2007; 22, 20112022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68.Hallan, SI, Coresh, J, Astor, BC, et al. International comparison of the relationship of chronic kidney disease prevalence and ESRD risk. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006; 17, 22752284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69.Coresh, J, Selvin, E, Stevens, LA, et al. Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States. JAMA. 2007; 298, 20382047.Google Scholar
70.Zhang, L, Zhang, P, Wang, F, et al. Prevalence and factors associated with CKD: a population study from Beijing. Am J Kidney Dis. 2008; 51, 373384.Google Scholar
71.Hallan, SI, Astor, BC, Romundstad, S, et al. Association of kidney function and albuminuria with cardiovascular mortality in older versus younger individuals; the HUNT II study. Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167, 24902496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72.de Jong, PE, van der Velde, M, Gansevoort, RT, Zoccali, C. Screening for chronic kidney disease: where does Europe go? Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008; 3, 616623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73.Taal, MW, Brenner, BM. Predicting initiation and progression of chronic kidney disease: developing renal risk scores. Kidney Int. 2006; 70, 16941705.Google Scholar
74.Hall, JE, Guyton, AC, Brands, MW. Pressure-volume regulation in hypertension. Kidney Int Suppl. 1996; 55, S35S41.Google ScholarPubMed
75.Ritz, E. The role of the kidney in cardiovascular medicine. Eur J Intern Med. 2005; 16, 321327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76.Forsdahl, A. Living conditions in childhood and subsequent development of risk factors for arteriosclerotic heart disease. The cardiovascular survey in Finnmark 1974–75. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1978; 32, 3437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77.Lackland, DT, Bendall, HE, Osmond, C, Egan, BM, Barker, DJ. Low birth weights contribute to high rates of early-onset chronic renal failure in the Southeastern United States. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160, 14721476.Google Scholar
78.Vikse, BE, Irgens, LM, Leivestad, T, Hallan, S, Iversen, BM. Low birth weight increases risk for end-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008; 19, 151157.Google Scholar
79.Fan, ZJ, Lackland, DT, Lipsitz, SR, Nicholas, JS. The association of low birthweight and chronic renal failure among Medicaid young adults with diabetes and/or hypertension. Public Health Rep. 2006; 121, 239244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80.Osmond, C, Barker, DJ, Winter, PD, Fall, CH, Simmonds, SJ. Early growth and death from cardiovascular disease in women. BMJ. 1993; 307, 15191524.Google Scholar
81.Huxley, R, Owen, CG, Whincup, PH, et al. Is birth weight a risk factor for ischemic heart disease in later life? Am J Clin Nutr. 2007; 85, 12441250.Google Scholar
82.de Jong, PE, Curhan, GC. Screening, monitoring, and treatment of albuminuria: public health perspectives. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006; 17, 21202126.Google Scholar
83.de Zeeuw, D, Parving, HH, Henning, RH. Microalbuminuria as an early marker for cardiovascular disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006; 17, 21002105.Google Scholar
84.Hallan, SI, Ritz, E, Lydersen, S, et al. Combining GFR and albuminuria to classify CKD improves prediction of ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009; 20, 10691077.Google Scholar
85.Comper, WD, Hilliard, LM, Nikolic-Paterson, DJ, Russo, LM. Disease-dependent mechanisms of albuminuria. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2008; 295, F1589F1600.Google Scholar
86.Yudkin, JS, Martyn, CN, Phillips, DI, Gale, CR. Associations of micro-albuminuria with intra-uterine growth retardation. Nephron. 2001; 89, 309314.Google Scholar
87.Painter, RC, Roseboom, TJ, van Montfrans, GA, et al. Microalbuminuria in adults after prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16, 189194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
88.Fagerudd, J, Forsblom, C, Pettersson-Fernholm, K, et al. Low birth weight does not increase the risk of nephropathy in Finnish type 1 diabetic patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2006; 21, 21592165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89.White, SL, Perkovic, V, Cass, A, et al. Is low birth weight an antecedent of CKD in later life? A systematic review of observational studies. Am J Kidney Dis. 2009; 54, 248261.Google Scholar
90.Li, S, Chen, SC, Shlipak, M, et al. Low birth weight is associated with chronic kidney disease only in men. Kidney Int. 2007; 73, 637642.Google Scholar
91.Law, CM, Shiell, AW. Is blood pressure inversely related to birth weight? The strength of evidence from a systematic review of the literature. J Hypertens. 1996; 14, 935941.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92.Huxley, R, Neil, A, Collins, R. Unravelling the fetal origins hypothesis: is there really an inverse association between birthweight and subsequent blood pressure? Lancet. 2002; 360, 659665.Google Scholar
93.Gamborg, M, Byberg, L, Rasmussen, F, et al. Birth weight and systolic blood pressure in adolescence and adulthood: meta-regression analysis of sex- and age-specific results from 20 Nordic studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2007; 166, 634645.Google Scholar
94.Langley-Evans, SC, Welham, SJM, Jackson, AA. Fetal exposure to maternal low protein diet impairs nephrogenesis and promotes hypertension in the rat. Life Sci. 1999; 64, 965974.Google Scholar
95.Lelièvre-Pégorier, M, Vilar, J, Ferrier, ML, et al. Mild vitamin A deficiency leads to inborn nephron deficit in the rat. Kidney Int. 1998; 54, 14551462.Google Scholar
96.Merlet-Bénichou, C, Gilbert, T, Muffat-Joly, M, Lelièvre-Pégorier, M, Leroy, B. Intrauterine growth retardation leads to a permanent nephron deficit in the rat. Pediatr Nephrol. 1994; 8, 175180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97.Lewis, RM, Forhead, AJ, Petry, CJ, Ozanne, SE, Hales, CN. Long-term programming of blood pressure by maternal dietary iron restriction in the rat. Br J Nutr. 2002; 88, 283290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98.Hinchliffe, , Vehaskari, MV, Aviles, DH, Manning, J. Prenatal programming of adult hypertension in the rat. Kidney Int. 2001; 59, 238245.Google Scholar
99.Manning, J, Beutler, K, Knepper, MA, Vehaskari, VM. Upregulation of renal BSC1 and TSC in prenatally programmed hypertension. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2002; 283, F202F206.Google Scholar
100.Langley-Evans, SC, Sculley, DV. The association between birthweight and longevity in the rat is complex and modulated by maternal protein intake during fetal life. FEBS Lett 24. 2006; 580, 41504153; E-pub 30 Jun 2006.Google Scholar
101.Welham, SJ, Wade, A, Woolf, AS. Protein restriction in pregnancy is associated with increased apoptosis of mesenchymal cells at the start of rat metanephrogenesis. Kidney International. 2002; 61, 12311242.Google Scholar
102.Ortiz, LA, Quan, A, Weinberg, A, Baum, M. Effect of prenatal dexamethasone on rat renal development. Kidney Int. 2001; 59, 16631669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103.Ortiz, LA, Quan, A, Zarzar, F, Weinberg, A, Baum, M. Prenatal dexamethasone programs hypertension and renal injury in the rat. Hypertension. 2003; 41, 328334.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104.Dodic, M, Hantzis, V, Duncan, J, et al. Programming effects of short prenatal exposure to cortisol. FASEB J. 2002; 16, 10171026.Google Scholar
105.Dodic, M, Peers, A, Moritz, K, Hantzis, V, Wintour, EM. No evidence for HPA reset in adult sheep with high blood pressure due to short prenatal exposure to dexamethasone. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2002; 282, R343R350.Google Scholar
106.Seckl, JR. Glucocorticoid programming of the fetus; adult phenotypes and molecular mechanisms. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2001; 185, 6171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107.Doyle, LW, Ford, GW, Davis, NM, et al. Antenatal corticosteroid therapy and blood pressure at 14 years of age in preterm children. Clin Sci (Lond). 2000; 98, 137142.Google Scholar
108.Dessens, AB, Haas, HS, Koppe, JG. Twenty-year follow-up of antenatal corticosteroid treatment. Pediatrics. 2000; 105, E77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109.Dalziel, SR, Walker, NK, Parag, V, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors after antenatal exposure to betamethasone: 30-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2005; 365, 18561862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
110.Finken, MJ, Keijzer-Veen, MG, Dekker, FW, et al. Antenatal glucocorticoid treatment is not associated with long-term metabolic risks in individuals born before 32 weeks of gestation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2008; 93, F442F447.Google Scholar
111.Wilson, JG, Warkany, J. Malformations in the genito-urinary tract induced by maternal vitamin A deficiency in the rat. Am J Anat. 1948; 83, 357407.Google Scholar
112.Bhat, PV, Manolescu, DC. Role of vitamin A in determining nephron mass and possible relationship to hypertension. J Nutr. 2008; 138, 14071410.Google Scholar
113.Batourina, E, Gim, S, Bello, N, et al. Vitamin A controls epithelial/mesenchymal interactions through Ret expression. Nat Genet. 2001; 27, 7478.Google Scholar
114.Gilbert, T, Merlet-Benichou, C. Retinoids and nephron mass control. Pediatr Nephrol. 2000; 14, 11371144.Google Scholar
115.Merlet-Bénichou, C, Vilar, J, Lelièvre-Pégorier, M, Gilbert, T. Role of retinoids in renal development: pathophysiological implication. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 1999; 8, 3943.Google Scholar
116.Mendelsohn, C, Lohnes, D, Décimo, D, et al. Function of the retinoic acid receptors (RARs) during development. (II) Multiple abnormalities at various stages of organogenesis in RAR double mutants. Development. 1994; 120, 27492771.Google Scholar
117.Makrakis, J, Zimanyi, MA, Black, MJ. Retinoic acid enhances nephron endowment in rats exposed to maternal protein restriction. Pediatr Nephrol. 2007; 22, 18611867.Google Scholar
118.Sutherland, MR, Gubahaju, L, Yoder, BA, Stahlman, MT, Black, MJ. The effects of postnatal retinoic administration on nephron endowment in the preterm baboon kidney. Paediatr Res. 2009; 65, 397402.Google Scholar
119.Goodyer, P, Kurpad, A, Rekha, S, et al. Effects of maternal vitamin A status on kidney development: a pilot study. Pediatr Nephrol. 2007; 22, 209214.Google Scholar
120.Darlow, BA, Graham, PJ. Vitamin A supplementation to prevent mortality and short and long-term morbidity in very low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007; 17, CD000501 (Update of: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002; (4): CD000501).Google Scholar
121.Xu, Q, Lucio-Cazana, J, Kitamura, M, et al. Retinoids in nephrology: promises and pitfalls. Kidney Int. 2004; 66, 21192131.Google Scholar
122.Gambling, L, Dunford, S, Wallace, DI, et al. Iron deficiency during pregnancy affects postnatal blood pressure in the rat. J Physiol. 2003; 552(Pt 2), 603610.Google Scholar
123.Crowe, C, Dandekar, P, Fox, M, et al. The effects of anaemia on heart, placenta and body weight, and blood pressure in fetal and neonatal rats. J Physiol. 1995; 488(Pt 2), 515519.Google Scholar
124.Singla, PN, Tyagi, M, Kumar, A, Dash, D, Shankar, R. Fetal growth in maternal anaemia. J Trop Pediatr. 1997; 43, 8992.Google Scholar
125.Lieberman, E, Ryan, KJ, Monson, RR, Schoenbaum, SC. Association of maternal hematocrit with premature labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988; 159, 107114.Google Scholar
126.Scholl, TO, Hediger, ML, Fischer, RL, Shearer, JW. Anemia vs iron deficiency: increased risk of preterm delivery in a prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992; 55, 985988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
127.Lu, ZM, Goldenberg, RL, Cliver, SP, Cutter, G, Blankson, M. The relationship between maternal hematocrit and pregnancy outcome. Obstet Gynecol. 1991; 77, 190194.Google Scholar
128.Tamura, T, Goldenberg, RL, Johnston, KE, Cliver, SP, Hickey, CA. Serum ferritin: a predictor of early spontaneous preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol. 1996; 87, 360365.Google Scholar
129.Knottnerus, JA, Delgado, LR, Knipschild, PG, Essed, GG, Smits, F. Haematologic parameters and pregnancy outcome. A prospective cohort study in the third trimester. J Clin Epidemiol. 1990; 43, 461466.Google Scholar
130.Cogswell, ME, Parvanta, I, Ickes, L, Yip, R, Brittenham, GM. Iron supplementation during pregnancy, anemia, and birth weight: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 78, 773781.Google Scholar
131.Belfort, MB, Rifas-Shiman, SL, Rich-Edwards, JW, et al. Maternal iron intake and iron status during pregnancy and child blood pressure at age 3 years. Int J Epidemiol. 2008; 37, 301308.Google Scholar
132.Whincup, P, Cook, D, Papacosta, O, Walker, M, Perry, I. Maternal factors and development of cardiovascular risk: evidence from a study of blood pressure in children. J Hum Hypertens. 1994; 8, 337343.Google Scholar
133.Siewert-Delle, A, Ljungman, S. The impact of birth weight and gestational age on blood pressure in adult life: a population-based study of 49-year-old men. Am J Hypertens. 1998; 11, 946953.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
134.Nuyt, AM, Alexander, BT. Developmental programming and hypertension. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2009; 18, 144152.Google Scholar
135.Usher, R, McLean, F. Intrauterine growth of live-born Caucasian infants at sea level: standards obtained from measurements in 7 dimensions of infants born between 25 and 44 weeks of gestation. J Pediatr. 1969; 74, 901910.Google Scholar
136.Liew, G, Wang, JJ, Mitchell, P. Which is the better marker for susceptibility to disease later in life: low birthweight or prematurity? Arch Dis Child. 2008; 93, 450.Google Scholar
137.Rakow, A, Johansson, S, Legnevall, L, et al. Renal volume and function in school-age children born preterm or small for gestational age. Pediatr Nephrol. 2008; 23, 13091315; E-pub 6 May 2008.Google Scholar
138.Kent, AL, Jyoti, R, Robertson, C, et al. Does extreme prematurity affect kidney volume at term corrected age? J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009; 22, 435438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
139.Bacchetta, J, Harambat, J, Dubourg, L, et al. Both extrauterine and intrauterine growth restriction impair renal function in children born very preterm. Kidney Int. 2009; 76, 445452.Google Scholar
140.Sutherland, M, Gubhaju, L, Stamp, L, et al. Preterm birth is associated with accelerated glomerular maturation and the formation of abnormal glomeruli. Nephrol. 2009; 14 (Suppl 1), A14, Abstract 052.Google Scholar
141.Hodgin, JB, Rasoulpour, M, Markowitz, GS, D’Agati, VD. Very low birth weight is a risk factor for secondary focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009; 4, 7176; E-pub 19 November 2008.Google Scholar
142.Abitbol, CL, Bauer, CR, Montane, B, et al. Long term follow up of extremely low birthweight infants with neonatal renal failure. Pediatr Nephrol. 2003; 18, 887893.Google ScholarPubMed
143.Al Salmi, I, Hoy, WE, Healy, H, et al. Birthweight and chronic kidney disease: a case-control study in an Australian population. Am J Kid Dis. 2008; 52, 10701078.Google Scholar
144.Lackland, DT, Barker, DJ. Birthweight: a predictive medicine consideration for the disparities in CKD. Am J Kid Dis. 2009; 53, 191193.Google Scholar
145.Hoy, WE, Mathews, JD, Pugsley, DJ, et al. The multidimensional nature of renal disease: rates and associations of albuminuria in an Australian Aboriginal community. Kidney Int. 1998; 54, 12961304.Google Scholar
146.Nenov, VD, Taal, MW, Sakharova, OV, Brenner, BM. Multi-hit nature of chronic renal disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2000; 9, 8597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
147.Hoy, WE, Kile, E, Rees, M, Mathews, JD. A new dimension to the Barker hypothesis: low birth weight and susceptibility to renal disease: findings in an Australian Aboriginal community. Kidney Int. 1999; 56, 10721076.Google Scholar
148.Bruce, MA, Beech, BM, Sims, M, et al. Social environmental stressors, psychological factors and kidney disease. J Investig Med. 2009; 57, 583589.Google Scholar
149.Hoy, WE, Nichol, JL. Birthweight and natural death in a remote Aboriginal community. Med J Aust. 2010; 192, 1419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
150.Hoy, WE, Kile, E, Rees, M, Mathews, JD. Low birth weight and renal disease in Australian Aborigines. The Lancet. 1998; 352, 18261827.Google Scholar
151.Singh, GR, Hoy, WE. Kidney volume, blood pressure, and albuminuria: findings in an Australian aboriginal community. Am J Kid Disease. 2004; 43, 254259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
152.Hoy, WE, Kondalsamy-Chennakesavan, S, et al. Final Report to Australian Kidney Foundation and the Office of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health (OATSIH) on the NT Aboriginal Chronic Disease Outreach Program, 2004. Retrieved 31 October 2004 from http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.auGoogle Scholar
153.Hoy, WE, Hughson, MD, Zimanyi, M, et al. Distribution of Volumes of Individual Glomeruli in Kidneys at Autopsy: Association with Age, Nephron Number, Birthweight and Body Mass Index. Am J Nephrol. 2009. Accepted December 2009.Google Scholar
154.Samuel, T, Hoy, WE, Douglas-Denton, R, Hughson, MD, Bertram, JF. Determinants of glomerular volumes in different cortical zones of the human kidney. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16, 31023109.Google Scholar
155.Zimanyi, MA, Hoy, WE, Douglas-Denton, RN, et al. Nephron number and individual glomerular volumes in male Caucasian and African American subjects. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009; 24, 24282433.Google Scholar
156.McNamara, BJ, Diouf, B, Hughson, MD, Hoy, WE, Bertram, JF. Associations between age, body size and nephron number with individual glomerular volumes in urban West African males. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009; 24, 15001506.Google Scholar
157.Hoy, WE, Zimanyi, MA, Samuel, T, et al. Distribution of volumes of different glomeruli within individuals: findings in kidneys at coronial autopsy. Australian and New Zealand Society of Nephrology 45th Annual Scientific Meeting, 7–9 September 2009, Hobart, Australia. Nephrology. 2009; 14(Suppl 1), A15(056).Google Scholar
158.Fogo, A, Ichikawa, I. Evidence for a pathogenetic link between glomerular hypertrophy and sclerosis. Am J Kidney Dis. 1991; 17, 666669.Google Scholar
159.Brenner, BM, Lawler, EV, Mackenzie, HS. The hyperfiltration theory: a paradigm shift in nephrology. Kidney Int. 1996; 49, 17741777.Google Scholar
160.Hughson, M, Farris, AB 3rd, Douglas-Denton, R, et al. Glomerular number and size in autopsy kidneys: the relationship to birthweight. Kidney Int. 2003; 63, 21132122.Google Scholar
161.Hoy, WE, Hughson, MD, Singh, GR, et al. Reduced nephron number and glomerulomegaly in Australian Aborigines: a group at high risk for renal disease and hypertension. Kidney Int. 2006; 70, 4110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
162.McNamara, BJ, Diouf, B, Douglas-Denton, R, Hughson, MD, Hoy, WE, Bertram, JF. A comparison of nephron number, glomerular volume and kidney weight in Senegalese Africans and African Americans. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2010; E-pub ahead of print, 11 February 2010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
163.Keller, G, Zimmer, G, Mall, G, et al. Nephron number in patients with primary hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2003; 348, 101108.Google Scholar
164.Ingelfinger, J. Is microanatomy destiny. New Engl J Med. 2003; 348, 991010.Google Scholar
165.Nyengaard, JR, Bendtsen, TF. Glomerular number and size in relation to age, kidney weight and body surface area in normal man. Anat Record. 1992; 232, 1940201.Google Scholar
166.Howard, D, Davis, J, Pugsley, JD, Seymour, A, Hoy, WE. Morphologic correlates of renal disease in a high risk Australian Aboriginal community Aust NZ Soc Nephrol, 32nd Annual Meeting, Perth, March 5–8, 1996. Kidney Int. 1997; 51, p. 1318.Google Scholar
167.Bertram, JF, Young, RJ, Kincaid-Smith, P, Seymour, AE, Hoy, WE. Glomerulomegaly in Australian Aborigines. Nephrology. 1998; 4, S46S53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
168.Young, RJ, Hoy, WE, Kincaid Smith, P, Seymour, AE, Bertram, JF. Glomerular size and glomerulosclerosis in Australian Aborigines. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000; 36, 481489.Google Scholar
169.Hoy, WE, Samuel, T, Hughson, MD, et al. .; and Members of the National Aboriginal Renal Biopsy Study Group. Kidney biopsy findings from Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory, Central Australia and Western Australia. Nephrology. 2005; 10(Suppl pA380), PS8.Google Scholar
170.Kincaid Smith, P, Hoy, WE, Hughson, MD, et al. .; and Members of the National Aboriginal Renal Biopsy Study Group. High rates of segmental glomerular injury in Aboriginal kidney biopsies. 41st Annual Scientific Meeting of the ANZSN, Wellington, Sept 2005. Nephrology. 2005; 10(Suppl), PS21 pA384.Google Scholar
171.Hoy, WE, on behalf of the Collaborative Study Group for Nationwide Indigenous Australian Renal Biopsies. Clinical and Morphologic Features in a Nationwide Series of Renal Biopsies of Indigenous Australians. Abstract presented at: The American Society of Nephrology Renal Week, Philadelphia, PA, November, 2008, SA-PO2461. J Am Soc Nephrol (Abstracts Issue 200819), 662A, October 2008.Google Scholar
172.Douglas-Denton, RN, Hoy, WE, Bertram, JE, et al., on behalf of the Indigenous Australian Renal Biopsy Study Group. Demographic Features of Indigenous Australians in a Nationwide Review of Renal Biopsies. 44th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Society of Nephrology, Newcastle, Sept 2008. Poster.Google Scholar
173.Mott, SA, Hoy, WE, Bertram, JE, et al., on behalf of the Indigenous Australian Renal Biopsy Study Group. Clinical Features of Indigenous Australians in a Nationwide Review of Renal Biopsies. 44th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Society of Nephrology, Newcastle, Sept 2008. Poster.Google Scholar
174.Kincaid Smith, P, Hoy, WE, Hughson, MD, et al. Kidney biopsy findings from Aboriginal people in Remote Areas in Australia: Focal and Segmental Glomeruloscerosis, insulin resistance and Type 2 Diabetes. Abstract presented at: World Congress of Nephrology, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, 21–25th April 2007.Google Scholar
175.Hoy, WE, on behalf of the Collaborative Study Group for Nationwide Indigenous Australian Renal Biopsies. Comparison of Findings in Diabetics and Nondiabetics in a Nationwide Study of Renal Biopsies in Indigenous Australians. J Am Soc Nephrol. 19 Abstracts Issue, October 2008.Google Scholar
176.Hoy, WE, Kondalsamy Chennakesavan, S, Shaw, J, et al. Estimating the excess risk for hypertension, renal disease and diabetes among of Aboriginal in remote communities in the Northern Territory. Aust NZ J Public Health. 2007; 31, 177183.Google Scholar
177.Wang, Z, Hoy, WE. Albuminuria and risk of developing diabetes in Aboriginal Australians. Int J Epidemiol. 2006; 35, 13311335.Google Scholar