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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 July 2009
This article examines foundations of perpetual mortuary intercessions in Nantes between 1500 and 1700. The sixteenth-century religious wars were a crucial era of devotional change. In reaction to Protestantism and conflict, collective ritual, devotion to the eucharist and charitable work received emphasis, while mortuary intercession declined. After 1600 traditional practices reasserted themselves, encouraged by Tridentine-inspired devotions and renewed clericalism. Foundations in convents and collegiate churches became the hallmark of the wealthy devout. However, elite and popular groups also turned to greater engagement with the world through good works, and dependence upon Mary for intercession. While interiority was a vital part of the new spirituality, exterior and collective religious acts remained vital.
1 ADLA, G 487 Saint-Nicolas, fondations. See, for example, Saint-Saturnin in 1722: ADLA, G 504 Saint-Saturnin, fondations.
2 Philippe Aries, The hour of our death, London 1983; Michel Vovelle, La Mort et l'occident de 1300 à nos jours, Paris 1983; Pierre Chaunu, La Mort à Paris: XVIe, XVIIe, XVIIIe siècles, Paris 1978; F. Lebrun, Les Hommes et la mort en Anjou XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, Paris 1971; Vanessa Harding, The dead and the living in Paris and London, 1500–1670, Cambridge 2002.
3 Alain Croix, La Bretagne aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles: la vie, la mort, la foi, Paris 1981; Ellen Badone, The appointed hour, Berkeley 1989.
4 Alain Croix, L'Âge d'or de la Bretagne, 1532–1675, Rennes 1993, 391.
5 A. Croix and F. Roudaut, Les Bretons, la mort et dieu de 1600 à nos jours, Paris 1984.
6 Elizabeth Tingle, Authority and society in Nantes during the French wars of religion, 1558–1598, Manchester 2006, ch. vi.
7 Peter Marshall, Beliefs and the dead in Reformation England, Oxford 2002, 1.
8 Michel Vovelle, Piété baroque et déchristianisation en Provence au XVIIIe siècle, Paris 1973.
9 Jacques Le Goff, The birth of purgatory, London 1984.
10 Eamon Duffy, The stripping of the altars: traditional religion in England, 1400–1580, New Haven 1992, 352.
11 Marshall, Beliefs and the dead, 8.
12 Duffy, Stripping of the altars, 342–3.
13 Ibid. 301.
14 Larissa Taylor, Soldiers of Christ: preaching in late medieval and reformation France, Oxford 1992, 94–5. Throughout Europe, there are relatively few late medieval representations of purgatory as opposed to hell. The exception seems to be the south of France, where alta pieces are found with depictions of souls in purgatory: Michel Vovelle, Vision de la mort et l'au delà en Provence du XVe au XXe siècle, Paris 1970, and Les Âmes du purgatoire ou le travail du deuil, Paris 1996.
15 Marshall, Beliefs and the dead, 27.
16 Michelle Fournié, Le Ciel, peut-il attendre? Le culte de purgatoire dans le Midi de la France (c. 1320–c. 1520), Paris 1997, 109–10, 233–43.
17 Sara T. Nalle, God in La Mancha: religious reform and the people of Cuenca, 1500–1650, Baltimore 1992; Carlés, Maria Tausiet, ‘Gritos del más allá: la defensa del purgatorio en la España de la Contrareforma’, Hispania Sacra lvii (2005), 81–108Google Scholar.
18 Carlos Eire, From Madrid to purgatory, Cambridge 1995, 175.
19 Duffy, Stripping of the altars, 327–8.
20 Katherine L. French, Clive G. Gibbs and Beat Kümin (eds), The parish in English life, 1400–1600, Manchester 1997.
21 Croix, La Bretagne, ii. 1133.
22 ADLA, G 493 Saint-Saturnin, fondations. Seron and his wife also made joint foundations in Saint-Saturnin parish church.
23 ADLA, G 463 Sainte-Croix, fondations.
24 ADLA, G 464 Sainte-Croix, fondations.
25 In Aix-en-Provence, convents were always the most important sites of foundations. Parishes gained a greater proportion of foundations during the wars of religion, but the religious orders still received twice as many: Clare Dolan, Entre Tours et clochers: les gens d'église à Aix-en-Provence au XVIème siècle, Sherbrooke 1981, 169–70.
26 Croix, La Bretagne, ii. 964–5.
27 A. N. Galpern, The religions of the people in sixteenth-century Champagne, Cambridge, Ma 1976; Matz, J. M., ‘Chapellenies et chapelains dans le diocèse d'Angers (1350–1550): éléments d'enquête’, Revue d'histoire ecclésiastique xci (1996), 375–6Google Scholar.
28 Philip T. Hoffman, Church and community in the diocese of Lyon, 1500–1789, New Haven 1984, 28–30.
29 Fournié, Le Ciel, 13–14.
30 Galpern, Religions of the people, 199.
31 Dolan, Entre Tours et clochers, 142.
32 See Tingle, Authority and society, ch. v.
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36 Hoffman, Church and community, 30.
37 The canons and decrees of the Council of Trent, trans. J. Waterworth, London–New York 1848, xlviii. 232–3.
38 For example in Marseilles: Wilhelm Kaiser, Marseille au temps des troubles, 1559–96: morphologie sociale et luttes de factions, Paris 1992.
39 B. Pocquet, Histoire de Bretagne, V: (1515–1715), Rennes 1913, repr. Mayenne 1975, 57; d'Étampes to Catherine de Medici, in B. Varigaud, Essai sur l'histoire des églises reformées de Bretagne (1535–1808), Paris 1870–7, i. 36–7.
40 AMN, BB 4 280r.
41 Report of the seneschal, 18–22 July 1561, in H. Morice and C. Taillandier, Histoire ecclésiastique et civile de Bretagne, Paris 1756, ii. 127ff. See also Catherine de' Medici to Sebastien de Luxembourg, comte de Martigues, July 1561, in Lettres de Catherine de Médicis, ed. H. de la Ferrière and B. de Puchesse, Paris 1880–1943, i. 217.
42 See Nicole Lemaître ‘L’Éducation de la foi dans les paroisses du xvieme siècle', in L'Encadrement religieux des fidèles au moyen âge et jusqu'au Concile de Trente, Paris 1985, 435–6.
43 Travers, Histoire civile, ii. 387.
44 Andrew Pettegree, ‘The sixteenth-century religious book project’, in A. Pettegree, P. Nelles and P. Connor (eds), The sixteenth-century religious book, Aldershot 2001, 1–17; L. Racaut, Hatred in print: Catholic propaganda and Protestant identity during the French wars of religion, Aldershot 2002.
45 Simon Vigor, Sermons catholiques pour tous les jours de caresme et feriés de Pasques, faits en l'église Saint Estienne du Mont à Paris, ed. Jean Christi, Paris 1588.
46 Henri Lapeyre, Une Famille des marchands: les Ruiz, Paris 1955, 566.
47 Travers, Histoire civile, ii. 358.
48 Giraud-Mangin, M., ‘La Bibliothèque de l'archidiacre Le Gallo au xvième siècle’, Bulletin de la Société archéolgique et historique de Nantes et la Loire-Inférieure lxxvi (1937), 105–20Google Scholar; will of Jean Christi (1608), reproduced in Croix, La Bretagne, ii. 1372–3.
49 Marc Venard, Le Catholicisme à l'épreuve dans la France du XVIème siècle, Paris 2000, 194.
50 Galpern, Religions of the people, 158, 199.
51 Barbara Diefendorf, Beneath the cross: Catholics and Huguenots in sixteenth-century France, Oxford 1991, 35–6, 38.
52 Ibid. 35–8.
53 Jackson-Lualdi, K., ‘Obéir aux commandements de dieu et de l'église: culte paroissiale et contre-réforme gallicane’, RHEF lxxxiv (1998), 18.Google Scholar
54 There is evidence for this in Lyons too, in 1563–7: Richard Gascon, Grand Commerce et vie urbaine au XVIème siècle: Lyon et ses marchands environs de 1520 – environs de 1580, Paris 1971, 511.
55 Barnes, Andrew E., ‘Religious anxiety and devotional change in sixteenth-century French penitential confraternities’, Sixteenth-Century Journal xix (1988), 391.Google Scholar
56 ADLA, G 467 Sainte-Croix, fondations.
57 Travers, Histoire civile, ii. 470.
58 Dolan, Entre Tours et clochers, 142.
59 Hoffman, Church and community, 40.
60 Travers, Histoire civile, iii. 54.
61 Pierre Biré, Alliances généalogicques de la maison de Lorraine illustrées des faites et gestes des princes d'icelles, Nantes 1593, 247.
62 ADLA, G 521 Saint-Vincent, fabrique.
63 G. Devailly (ed.), Histoire religieuse de la Bretagne, Chambray 1980, 172–3; G.-A. Lobineau, Les Vies des saints de Bretagne, ed abbé Tresvaux, Paris 1837.
64 Croix, L'âge d'or, 487.
65 Guy Saupin, Nantes au temps de l’Édit, La Crèche 1998, 230–1.
66 Devailly, Histoire religieuse de la Bretagne, 196.
67 Saupin, Nantes au temps de l'Edit, 228.
68 Vovelle, La Mort et l'occident, 306–7.
69 Ibid. 359.
70 Nalle, God in La Mancha, 194, 199.
71 Harding, The dead and the living, 193.
72 Croix, La Bretagne, ii. 1140–2.
73 Ibid. ii 1135.
74 ADLA, H 229 Carmelites, fondations.
75 ADLA, G 467 Sainte-Croix, fondations; G. Durville, L'Ancienne Confrérie du Saint-Sacrement à Nantes, Nantes 1909, 35.
76 Christopher Elwood, The body broken, Oxford 1999, 19.
77 For example, Troyes (1547) and Rouen (1561): Galpern, Religions of the people, 132–3; Philip Benedict, Rouen during the wars of religion, Cambridge 1981, 83–8.
78 Yves Durand (ed.), Le Diocèse de Nantes, Paris 1985, 90.
79 Travers, Histoire civile, ii. 403.
80 See Durville, L'Ancienne confrérie, passim.
81 AMN, GG 644 Religion reformée.
82 ADLA, G 467 Sainte-Croix, fondations.
83 See Dompnier, B., ‘Un Aspect de la devotion eucharistique dans la France du xviie siècle: les prières des quarante-heures’, RHEF lxvii (1981), 5–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84 G. Durville, Études sur le vieux Nantes, d'après les documents originaux, Nantes 1901–15, ii. 168–9.
85 Eire, From Madrid to purgatory, 233.
86 Hoffman, Church and community, 29.
87 Barnes, ‘Religious anxiety’, 401.
88 Philippe du Bec, Exhortation sus le reglement et police faictz à Nantes pour l'entretien des paouvres: aux clergé, nobles et bourgeois, habitans de ladicte ville, Paris 1570.
89 Eire, From Madrid to purgatory, 246.
90 Hoffman, Church and community, 84.
91 Keith Luria, Territories of grace: Cultural change in the seventeenth-century diocese of Grenoble, Berkeley 1991, 131–4.
92 A. Ramsey, Liturgy, politics and salvation: the Catholic League in Paris and the nature of Catholic Reform, 1540–1630, Rochester, NY 1999, 184–5.
93 J. Le Goff and R. Remond (eds), Histoire de la France religieuse, II: Du Christianisme flamboyante à l'aube des Lumières, Paris 1988, 439.
94 ADLA, G 521 Saint-Vincent, fondations; H 321 Minimes, fondations.
95 ADLA, H 232 Carmelites, fondations.
96 Croix, La Bretagne, ii. 1129–30.
97 Sibold, M., ‘La Vie religieuse d'une petite ville bretonne au xviie siècle’, RHEF lxix (1983), 209–32.Google Scholar
98 Croix, La Bretagne, ii. 977.
99 Hoffman, Church and community, 121.
100 Nicole Lemaître, Le Rouergue flamboyant: clergé et paroisses du diocèse de Rodez, 1417–1563, Paris 1988, 363.
101 Vovelle, La mort et l'occident, 311–12.
102 Luria, Territories of grace, 129.
103 Nalle, God in La Mancha, 135.
104 Bossy, John, ‘The social history of confession in the age of the Reformation’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 5th ser. xxv (1975), 21–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
105 For example, foundation of Michelle Monnyer in Saint-Saturnin, 1537: ADLA, G 496 Saint-Saturnin, fondations; foundation of Pierre Guihard in Notre Dame, 1662: G 324 Notre Dame, fondations.
106 On the wages of artisans and building costs see E. C. Tingle, ‘The building industries of eastern Brittany, 1600–1790’, unpubl. DPhil diss. Oxford 1988, ch. v.
107 Harding, The dead and the living, 149–50, 154, 175.
108 Croix, La Bretagne, ii. 1027–8.
109 ADLA, H 225 Carmelites, fondations.
110 ADLA, G 323 Notre Dame, fondations.
111 ADLA, G 521 Saint-Vincent, fondations.
112 References scattered in ADLA, G 309–32 Notre Dame, and G 421–79 Sainte-Croix.
113 ADLA, G 330 Notre Dame, fondations.