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How to win friends and influence nations: the international history of Development Volunteering*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 February 2017

Agnieszka Sobocinska
Agnieszka Sobocinska*
Affiliation:
National Centre for Australian Studies, Monash University, PO Box 197, Caulfield East, VIC 3145, Australia E-mail: agnieszka.sobocinska@monash.edu
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Abstract

This article traces the personal and institutional networks that facilitated the transnational spread of Development Volunteering in the 1950s and 1960s. Examining Australia’s Volunteer Graduate Scheme, Britain’s Voluntary Service Overseas, and the United States Peace Corps, it destabilizes each nation’s claims to pioneering Development Volunteering, and interrogates the reasons for these claims. Once national frames are removed, broader patterns come into view. This article reveals that Development Volunteering held multiple meanings, as discourses of development, colonialism, and control existed alongside those of youthful idealism and national benevolence. It argues that, by involving ‘ordinary’ people in international development and by re-inscribing colonial-era divisions between the developed and developing worlds, Development Volunteering contributed to the broader process by which colonial discourses were translated into the postcolonial lexicon of development.

Keywords

development discourseforeign aidinternational developmentPeace Corpsvolunteering
Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Global History , Volume 12 , Issue 1 , March 2017 , pp. 49 - 73
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

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Footnotes

*

My sincere thanks to Christina Twomey, Clare Corbould, Julie Kalman, Susie Protschky, Michael Hau, Kat Ellinghaus, Rachel Standfield, and the Journal of Global History’s editors and three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments. I would also like to thank Jonathan Stoddart for his generous assistance in the archives.

References

1 As of 2016, Australian Volunteers International (the successor programme to the Volunteer Graduate Scheme) has deployed some 10,000 Australians across the developing world, Voluntary Service Overseas over 40,000 volunteers, and the Peace Corps over 220,000 Americans. See https://www.avi.org.au/our-history/ (consulted 25 November 2016); Ludmilla Kwitko and Diane McDonald, Australian government volunteer program review: final report, Canberra: AusAID, 2009; http://www.vsointernational.org/about; http://www.peacecorps.gov/about/fastfacts/ (consulted 25 November 2016).

2 For a discussion of the social and cultural applications of modernization theory, see Adas, Michael, ‘Modernization theory and the American revival of the scientific and technological standards of social achievement and human worth’, in David C. Engerman, Nils Gilman, Mark H. Haefele, and Michael E. Latham, eds, Staging growth: modernization, development, and the global Cold War, Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003, pp. 25–45 Google Scholar.

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4 This binary is addressed in O’Sullivan, Kevin, Hilton, Matthew, and Fiori, Juliano, ‘Humanitarianisms in context’, European Review of History, 23, 1–2, 2016, p. 2 Google Scholar.

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11 Known as the Overseas Service Bureau until 1998/99. Overseas Service Bureau, Australian volunteers abroad: 25 years working for the world, Melbourne: Overseas Service Bureau, 1989; Purdey, Jemma, From Vienna to Yogyakarta: the life of Herb Feith, Sydney: UNSW Press, 2011 Google Scholar.

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13 Fuchs, Lawrence H., Those peculiar Americans: the Peace Corps and American national character, New York: Meredith Press, 1967, p. 4 Google Scholar; Fischer, Fritz, Making them like us: Peace Corps volunteers in the 1960s, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998 Google Scholar.

14 Hoffman, Elizabeth Cobbs, All you need is love: the Peace Corps and the spirit of the 1960s, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998, p. 1 Google Scholar. See also Cobbs, Elizabeth, ‘Decolonization, the Cold War, and the foreign policy of the Peace Corps’, Diplomatic History, 20, 1, 1996, pp. 79–105 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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16 Peterson, Anne Palmer, ‘Academic conceptions of a United States Peace Corps’, History of Education, 40, 2, 2011, pp. 229–240 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smith, E. Timothy, ‘Roots of the Peace Corps: youth volunteer service in the 1950s’, Peace and Change, 41, 2, 2016, pp. 221–254 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Betty Feith, ‘Putting in a stitch or two: an episode in education for international understanding – the Volunteer Graduate Scheme in Indonesia, 1950–63’, MEd thesis, Monash University, Melbourne, 1984, p. 5.

18 Dickson, Chance to serve, frontispiece. Dickson’s biography, written by his wife, Mora, in 1976, also claimed that ‘tens of thousands of young people … owe this experience to one man – Alec Dickson’.

19 Adams, Voluntary Service Overseas, p. 13.

20 Foreword by HRH Prince Philip in ibid., p. 7.

21 ‘President likens Peace Corps to the spirit of 1776’, New York Times, 5 July 1963.

22 Chalmers M. Roberts, ‘Peace Corps head sees pioneer spirit revival’, Washington Post, 7 March 1961.

23 1st Peace Corps report, Washington, DC: Peace Corps, 1962.

24 See, for example, National Archives at College Park (henceforth NARA), RG 490, Peace Corps Public Relations Publications, 1961–93, Box 2, Public Affairs Staff, Opportunities in the Peace Corps: a fact booklet, Washington, DC: Peace Corps, 1963.

25 Albertson, Maurice L., Rice, Andrew E., and Birky, Pauline E., New frontiers for American youth: perspective on the Peace Corps, Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press, 1961, pp. 8–11 Google Scholar.

26 Brewis, Georgina, A social history of student volunteering, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, pp. 176–177 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brouwer, Ruth Compton, Canada’s global villagers: CUSO in development, 1961–1981, Vancouver and Toronto: University of British Columbia Press, 2013, pp. 13–14 Google Scholar; Brouwer, Ruth Compton, ‘“Canada’s Peace Corps”? CUSO’s evolving relationship with its US cousin, 1961–1971’, International Journal, 70, 1, 2015, pp. 137–146 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cobbs Hoffman, All you need.

27 Several historians have called for a broader, more truly global history of development. See Engerman, David C. and Unger, Corinna R., ‘Introduction: towards a global history of modernization’, Diplomatic History, 33, 3, 2009, pp. 375–385 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Hodge, Triumph. See also Latham, Modernization; Gilman, Nils, Mandarins of the future: modernization theory in Cold War America, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003 Google Scholar; Ekbladh, Great American mission; Hilton, Matthew, McKay, James, Crowson, Nicholas, and Mouhot, Jean-Francois, The politics of expertise: how NGOs shaped modern Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 Gillette, Arthur, One million volunteers: the story of volunteer youth service, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968 Google Scholar; Peters, William, Passport to friendship: the story of the experiment in international living, Philadelphia, PA, and New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1957 Google Scholar.

30 For a discussion of the VGS critique of UNTAA, see Sobocinska, Agnieszka, ‘A new kind of mission: the Volunteer Graduate Scheme and the cultural history of international development’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 62, 3, 2016, pp. 369–387 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The quotation is from Webster, David, ‘Development advisors in a time of Cold War and decolonization: the United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, 1950–59’, Journal of Global History, 6, 2, 2011, p. 250 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 National Library of Australia (henceforth NLA), Records of Volunteer Graduates Abroad, MS 2601, Box 6, Herb Feith to Betty Evans, 20 June 1951.

32 Peter Russo, ‘The students don’t need advice’, The Argus (Melbourne), 12 January 1956, p. 2.

33 National Archives of Australia (henceforth NAA), A1893, 2032/5/4 Part 1, Patrick Shaw to L. J. Arnott, 15 March 1955.

34 See Mackie, J. A. C., Bandung 1955: non-alignment and Afro-Asian solidarity, Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2005 Google Scholar; Tan, Seng and Acharya, Amitav, eds., Bandung revisited: the legacy of the 1955 Asian-African conference for international order, Singapore: NUS Press, 2008 Google Scholar; Finanne, Antonia and McDougall, Derek, Bandung 1955: little histories, Melbourne: Monash University Press, 2010 Google Scholar. For US responses to the Bandung Conference, see Jones, Matthew, ‘A “segregated” Asia? Race, the Bandung Conference, and pan-Asianist fears in American thought and policy, 1954–1955’, Diplomatic History, 29, 5, 2005, pp. 841–868 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 NAA, A1893, 2032/5/4 Part 1, NUAUS, ‘The scheme for graduate employment in Indonesia: an account of the way the scheme works, and a letter from Indonesia to interested volunteers’, 1954 edition.

36 NLA, MS 2601, Box 3, ‘The Australian scheme for graduate employment in Indonesia’, 4 November 1954.

37 NLA, MS 2601, Box 2, Keith Buckley to Jim Webb, 9 November 1963.

38 NAA, A1893, 2032/5/4 Part 1, W. A. Vawdrey to Department of External Affairs, 7 December 1954.

39 NLA, MS 2601, Box 4, Jim Webb to Ian Newman, 5 April 1956.

40 ‘Presiden Soekarno dihormati kaum intelek dan disembah oleh massa: seorang Australia tentang Indonesia (President Soekarno respected by intellectuals and worshipped by the masses: an Australian about Indonesia)’, Merdeka, 10 June 1954; ‘Pemuda-Pemuda Australia ikut membangun Indonesia (Australian youth join in Indonesia’s development)’, Abadi, 14 January 1955; ‘Sardjana Australia sanggup dibajar menurut P.G.P. (Australian graduates can be paid according to PGP)’, Harian Umum, 2 February 1955; Amir Daud, ‘Pemuda-pemuda Australia memberikan tenaganja di Indonesia: Mereka hidup setjara PGP (Australian youth strengthen Indonesia: they live on PGP)’, Pedoman Minggu, 15 January 1956.

41 NLA, MS 2601, Box 3, ‘Speech delivered by His Excellency Dr R.H. Tirtawinata, Ambassador for Indonesia, to the Volunteer Graduate Scheme conference at Melbourne University on Thursday 23 August, 1956’.

42 Noela Motum, ‘Lemonade with the President’, Djembatan (The Bridge), 1, 1, July 1957, p. 2.

43 Cited in Feith, ‘Putting in a stitch or two’, p. 5.

44 NLA, MS 2601, Box 12, Minutes of Meeting, 3 October 1959.

45 NLA, MS 2601, Box 4, Betty Evans to Tom Critchley, 14 December 1950, and Betty Evans to Tom Critchley, 15 May 1951.

46 NLA, MS 2601, Box 1, Jim Webb, report to NUAUS Council, February 1955.

47 The religious elements (and networks) of VGS are beyond the scope of this article, but are discussed in Sobocinska, ‘New kind of mission’.

48 NLA, MS 2601, Box 6, Herb Feith to G. S. McDonald, 26 July 1951.

49 NLA, MS 2601, Box 1, Jim Webb to NUAUS Council, February 1955.

50 NLA, MS 2601, Box 1, Jim Webb to Herb and Betty Feith, 1 May 1955.

51 NLA, MS 9926, Box 20, Papers of Herb Feith, ‘Information letter, Canadian Volunteer Graduate Program’.

52 For a full account of CUSO, see Compton Brouwer, Canada’s global villagers.

53 NLA, MS 2601, Box 2, A. H. Borthwick to Ailsa Zainu’ddin, 18 December 1957.

54 Dickson, Chance to serve, p. 83.

55 Bailkin, Afterlife of empire, p. 69.

56 Morris, Robert C., Overseas volunteer programs: their evolution and the role of governments in their support, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973, pp. 43–44 Google Scholar.

57 House of Commons Debates (Hansard), 12 December 1962, vol. 669, cc 423–81.

58 Bocking-Welch, Anna, ‘Imperial legacies and internationalist discourses: British involvement in the United Nations Freedom from Hunger Campaign, 1960–70’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 40, 5, 2012, pp. 879–896 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bocking-Welch, ‘Youth against hunger’.

59 HRH Prince Philip in Adams, Voluntary Service Overseas, p. 8.

60 See Westad, Odd Arne, The global Cold War: Third World interventions and the making of our times, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007 Google Scholar, especially pp. 92–7; Latham, Right kind of revolution; Simpson, Economists.

61 The National Archives, Kew (henceforth TNA), CO 859/1445, Alec Dickson, The Thomas Holland Memorial Lecture, 23 February 1960.

62 Adams, Voluntary Service Overseas, p. 16.

63 Dickson, Thomas Holland Memorial Lecture.

64 TNA, DO 163/22, Note to file, Voluntary Service Overseas, June 1961.

65 In 1960–61, two volunteers were posted in the Philippines, two in Ethiopia and one in Laos. See TNA, CO 859/1445, VSO Policy, Colonial Office.

66 TNA, CO 859/1445, VSO Policy, Colonial Office, ‘Report on Student Volunteer Scheme, Sarawak’.

67 This assessment is based on the reports submitted to the Colonial Office following requests for feedback on VSO in 1960. TNA, CO 859/1445, VSO Policy, Colonial Office.

68 TNA, CO 859/1445, VSO Policy, Colonial Office, ‘Report on Student Volunteer Scheme, Sarawak’.

69 Adams, Voluntary Service Overseas, p. 16.

70 ‘Boy volunteers return home: year spent among backward peoples’, The Times, 29 September 1959.

71 House of Commons Debates (Hansard), 12 December 1962, vol. 669, cc 423–81.

72 For an authoritative account of the intersection of decolonization and the Cold War, see Westad, Global Cold War.

73 VSO Company Archives, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, Box 31, Executive Committee Minutes, 30 May 1961.

74 Dickson, Chance to serve, p. 70.

75 Latham, Modernization; Ekbladh, Great American mission, esp. pp. 158–61.

76 Webster, ‘Development advisors’, p. 250.

77 Barnett, Michael, Empire of humanity: a history of humanitarianism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011, p. 62 Google Scholar.

78 House of Commons Debates (Hansard), 12 December 1962, vol. 669, cc 423–81.

79 Adams, Voluntary Service Overseas, p. 79.

80 TNA, CO 859/1445, Notes to file, 23 November 1960.

81 Bailkin, Afterlife of empire. See also Andrew Jones, ‘British humanitarian NGOs and the disaster relief industry, 1942–1985’, PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 2014; Tester, Keith, ‘Humanitarianism: the group charisma of postcolonial Britain’, International Journal of Cultural Studies, 13, 4, 2010, pp. 375–389 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

82 ‘A year in the Commonwealth for young volunteers’, The Times, 1 December 1959, p. 4.

83 Ibid.

84 TNA, CO 859/1445, Sir Evelyn Hone to Carstairs, 8 October 1960.

85 TNA, CO 859/1445, D. M. Smith to Mr Windsor, 6 October 1960.

86 Dickson, Chance to serve, pp. 93–4.

87 Dickson, Thomas Holland Memorial Lecture.

88 TNA, DO 163/22, T. Bambury, UK High Commission, Karachi to Mr Crook, 31 July 1961. Fazurhat is now known as Faujdarhat.

89 Bailkin, Afterlife of empire, p. 55.

90 Dickson, Chance to serve, p. 92.

91 Dickson, World elsewhere, p. 13.

92 VSO Company Archives, Box 31, Minutes of the Executive Committee, 1961–74, and VSO Council Minutes, 1961–65. For British government discussions of Dickson, see TNA, OD 10/3, C. N. F. Odgers note to file, 14 October 1961; TNA, OD 10/4, W. J. Smith to P. Rogers, 7 February 1962.

93 TNA, OD 10/3, Voluntary Service Overseas Policy, Department of Technical Cooperation.

94 London School of Economics archives, RVA Records, Box 40, Lockwood Committee Minutes, 1962–69.

95 VSO Company Archives, Box 698, lists of volunteers, 1958–74; Box 699, Dick Bird to Brian Deer, 13 February 1998.

96 John F. Kennedy, Inaugural address, 20 January 1961, https://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/Ready-Reference/JFK-Quotations/Inaugural-Address.aspx (consulted 21 October 2016).

97 Peace Corps: 5th annual report to congress, Washington, DC: Peace Corps, 1966, p. 6.

98 Herb Feith to American Committee on Africa, 23 April 1959, in Betty Feith, ‘Putting in a stitch or two’, p. 27.

99 ‘Two Peace Corps problems’, New York Times, 11 March 1961, p. 20.

100 Time magazine, 5 July 1963, cover.

101 See Agnieszka Sobocinska, ‘“The most potent PR tool ever devised”? The United States Peace Corps in the early 1960s’, in Michael Lawrence and Rachel Tavernor, eds., Global humanitarianism and media culture, Manchester: Manchester University Press, forthcoming 2017.

102 NARA, RG 490, Peace Corps Public Relations Publications, 1961–93, Box 2, Hilda Cole Espy, ‘What you should know about the Peace Corps’, Atlantic Monthly, August 1962.

103 Margaret Mead, Foreword to Textor, Robert B., ed. Cultural frontiers of the Peace Corps, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1966, p. viiGoogle Scholar.

104 Fuchs, Those peculiar Americans, p. 4.

105 Ibid., p. 11.

106 Roy Hoopes, The complete Peace Corps guide, New York: The Dial Press, 1961, p. vii.

107 ‘The “Peace Corps” starts’, New York Times, 2 March 1961, p. 26.

108 ‘The Peace Corps’ first year’, New York Times, 25 June 1962.

109 1st Peace Corps report, p. 5.

110 NARA, RG 490, Radio and Television Files, 1980–82, Box 4, Michael Abbott to Sargent Shriver, undated [1962].

111 Hampton, Jim, ‘The beautiful American: a Peace Corps volunteer who couldn’t come home’, National Observer, 1 February 1971 Google Scholar.

112 Dickson, Chance to serve, p. 109.

113 Ibid., pp. 105–6.

114 Recounted in House of Commons Debates (Hansard), 9 March 1961, vol. 636, cc 679–82.

115 TNA, CO 859/1445, O. H. Morris to Mr Wilshire, 27 March 1961.

116 Robert Stephens, ‘Britain has its own “peace corps”: pioneer of Kennedy’s scheme’, The Observer, 5 March 1961.

117 House of Commons Debates (Hansard), 12 December 1962, vol. 669, cc 423–81.

118 Alec Dickson, ‘A great voluntary movement’, The Guardian, 29 January 1962.

119 Sargent Shriver, ‘Introduction’, in Hoopes, Complete Peace Corps guide, p. 1.

120 The most famous of these critiques was Lederer, William J. and Burdick, Eugene, The ugly American, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1958 Google Scholar.

121 Shriver, ‘Introduction’, p. 1.

122 Textor, Cultural frontiers, p. 3.

123 Cobbs Hoffman, All you need, p. 27.

124 Prashad, Vijay, The darker nations: a people’s history of the Third World, New York: W. W. Norton, 2007 Google Scholar. See also Rosenberg, Emily S., Spreading the American dream: American economic and cultural expansion, 1890–1945, New York: Hill and Wang, 1982 Google Scholar.

125 Gertrude Samuels, ‘A force of youth as a force of peace’, New York Times, 5 February 1961.

126 Shriver, Sargent, ‘Introduction’, in Glenn D. Kittler, The Peace Corps, New York: Paperback Library, 1963, p. 5 Google Scholar.

127 Foreword to Fuchs, Those peculiar Americans, p. xii.

128 Ibid., p. xiv.

129 Schein, ‘Lansdcape’, p. 206.

130 Jahanbani, ‘Different kind’, p. 21.

131 See Ekbladh, Great American mission; Latham, Modernization.

132 Hayes, Samuel P., An international Peace Corps: the promise and problems, Washington, DC: Public Affairs Institute, 1961 Google Scholar.

133 Sargent Shriver, cited in Godwin, Francis W., Goodwin, Richard N., and Haddad, William F., The hidden force: a report of the international conference on middle level manpower, San Juan, Puerto Rico, October 10–12, 1962, New York: Harper & Row, 1963, p. xiiGoogle Scholar.

134 Pauline Madow, ed., The Peace Corps, New York: The H.W. Wilson Company, 1964, p. 4.

135 ‘Letter to the editor: peace army’, The Times, 7 March 1961; ‘Australia’s version of America’s Peace Corps’, Sydney Morning Herald, 8 March 1962; ‘Letter to the editor: an Australian “Peace Corps”’, Sydney Morning Herald, 12 March 1962; Ian Smillie, The land of lost content: A history of CUSO, Toronto: Deneau Publishers, 1985. See also ‘Time for an Irish Peace Corps?’, The Furrow, 25, 10, October 1974, pp. 549–55; ‘West German Peace Corps: American pattern’, Times of India, 26 June 1963.

136 ‘Japanese plan Peace Corps’, New York Times, 28 April 1961.

137 See Westad, Global Cold War.

138 1st Peace Corps report, p. 32.

139 In 1961/62, there were fifty-one volunteers in Ghana and twenty-six in India. A further forty-six volunteers served in Bolivia and forty-three in Brazil, which had sent observers but not delegates to the Belgrade Conference. See 1st Peace Corps report, p. 77.

140 Ibid., p. 76.

141 Cobbs, ‘Decolonization’, p. 80.

142 ‘Postcard to friend reporting “primitive living” leads to protest by students’, New York Times, 16 October 1961; ‘Nigeria students urge deportation of American Peace Corps members’, Washington Post, 16 October 1961; ‘Editorial: growing pains’, Washington Post, 18 October 1961; ‘Editorial: that Peace Corps postcard’, New York Times, 20 October 1961.

143 Prashad, Darker nations; Prashad, Vijay, The poorer nations: a possible history of the Global South, London and New York: Verso, 2014 Google Scholar.

144 Jay Walz, ‘Africans oppose aid by the West’, New York Times, 1 April 1961.

145 ‘Readers’ views: Peace Corps’, Times of India, 30 March 1961.

146 Amrita Malik, ‘Alas for culture!’, Times of India, 8 February 1963. See also Schein, ‘Educating Americans’.

147 ‘Dean Rusk mengatakan, “adanja didaerah perdjandjian itu guru2, dokter2 dan insinjur2 Amerika artinja tidak kurang daripada adanja pasukan2 Amerika” (Dean Rusk said “The presence of American teachers, doctors and engineers in Treaty areas does not mean less than the presence of American troops”)’: ‘Korps Perdamaian dan SEATO (Peace Corps and SEATO)’, Harian Rakyat, 10 September 1962.

148 See, for example, ‘Tolak tjampur tangan “Korps Perdamaian” di Indonesia (Reject Peace Corps’ interference in Indonesia)’, Harian Rakyat, 15 September 1962; ‘Editorial: sekali lagi: “Korps Perdamaian” (Editorial: once again: Peace Corps)’, Harian Rakyat, 17 September 1962; ‘“Korps Perdamaian” udjud neo kolonial (Peace Corps’ neo-colonial intentions)’, Harian Rakyat, 9 October 1962; ‘Editorial: melawan “Peace Corps” (Editorial: against the Peace Corps)’, Harian Rakyat, 26 April 1963; ‘“Peace Corps” harus dilawan karena masa lah prinsip (Peace Corps must be resisted on principle)’, Harian Rakyat, 29 April 1963.

149 Cited in Natarajan, L., America’s two pincers: under roof of USIS, what Peace Corps practices, Lucknow: Saral Auto Press, 1970 Google Scholar.

150 Peace Corps: 5th annual report to Congress, p. 6.

151 4th annual Peace Corps report, Washington, DC: Peace Corps, 1965, p. 5.