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A PREQUEL TO LAW AND REVOLUTION: A LONG LOST MANUSCRIPT OF HAROLD J. BERMAN COMES TO LIGHT1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 January 2014

John Witte Jr  and
Christopher J. Manzer
John Witte Jr
Affiliation:
Jonas Robitscher Professor of Law, Alonzo L. McDonald Distinguished Professor, and Director of the Center for the Study of Law and Religion, Emory University
Christopher J. Manzer
Affiliation:
Juris Doctor and Master of Theological Studies Candidate and Savage-Lebey Scholar, Emory University
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Abstract

The late Harold Berman was a pioneering scholar of Soviet law, legal history, jurisprudence, and law and religion; he is best known today for his monumental Law and Revolution series on the Western legal tradition. Berman wrote a short book, Law and Language, in the early 1960s, but it was not published until 2013. In this early text, he adumbrated many of the main themes of his later work, including Law and Revolution. He also anticipated a good deal of the interdisciplinary and comparative methodology that we take for granted today, even though it was rare in the intense legal positivist era during which he was writing. This essay contextualizes Berman's Law and Language within the development of his own legal thought and in the evolution of interdisciplinary legal studies. It focuses particularly on the themes of law and religion, law and history, and law and communication that dominated Berman's writing until his death in 2007.

Keywords

Harold J. Bermanlanguagehistorypositivisminterdisciplinary
Type
ARTICLES
Information
Journal of Law and Religion , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , February 2014 , pp. 142 - 169
Copyright
Copyright © Center for the Study of Law and Religion at Emory University 2014 

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Footnotes

1

This article is largely drawn from our introduction to Harold J. Berman's Law and Language: The Effective Symbols of Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 1–35. It is used herein with permission of the publisher.

References

2 Harold J. Berman to his Dartmouth College mentor Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy, 28 May 1966, Emory Law Library Archives (see note 19 below).

3 Jacket endorsement for Hunter, Howard O., ed., The Integrative Jurisprudence of Harold J. Berman (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996)Google Scholar. By the time of this endorsement, Dean Calabresi had been appointed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.

4 The first-person voice used herein is that of author John Witte.

5 Berman, Harold J., Law and Language: Effective Symbols of Community, ed. Witte, John Jr. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Berman, Harold J., The Interaction of Law and Religion (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1974)Google Scholar, partly reprinted and revised in Faith and Order: The Reconciliation of Law and Religion (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1993)Google Scholar.

7 True story: It was the winter of 1982, with Brezhnev still in power in the USSR. The Bermans had me over for dinner. After a few rounds of drinks, Berman stood up and announced grandly: “I have a prophecy to make. I predict that, in a decade, the Soviet Union will be revolutionized, and the leader of the revolution will be a young man I have been watching for a long time—Mikhail Gorbachev.” Within a decade, glasnost, perestroika, and demokratizatsiia had become the watchwords of a new Russian revolution. See Harold J. Berman, review of PERESTROIKA: New Thinking for Our Country and the World, by Mikhail Gorbachev, Atlanta Constitution, December 13, 1987, 12J; “Gorbachev's Law Reforms in Historical Perspective,” Emory Journal of International Affairs 5 (Spring 1988): 1–10Google Scholar; “The Challenge of Christianity and Democracy in the Soviet Union,” in Christianity and Democracy in Global Context, ed. Witte, John Jr. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993), 287–96Google Scholar.

8 Berman, Harold J., Justice in the U.S.S.R. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950, 1963; New York: Random House, 1963)Google Scholar.

9 Berman, Harold J., “The Legal Framework of Trade Between Planned and Market Economies: The Soviet-American Example,” Law and Contemporary Problems 24 (Summer 1959): 482–528CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berman, Harold J. and Bustin, George L., “The Soviet System of Foreign Trade,” in Business Transactions with the USSR: The Legal Issues, ed. Starr, Robert (Chicago: ABA Press, 1975), 25–75Google Scholar; Berman, Harold J., “The Law of International Commercial Transactions (Lex Mercatoria),” Emory Journal of International Dispute Resolution 2 (Spring 1988): 235–310Google Scholar.

10 Berman, Harold J. and Spindler, James W., trans. and eds., Soviet Criminal Law and Procedure: The RSFSR Codes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966)Google Scholar; Berman, Harold J. and Maggs, Peter B., trans. and eds., Disarmament Inspection under Soviet Law (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1967)Google Scholar; Berman, Harold J. and Quigley, John B., trans. and eds., Basic Laws on the Structure of the Soviet State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969)Google Scholar; Berman, Harold J., trans. and ed., Soviet Statutes and Decisions, A Journal of Translations I–V (Fall 1964–Spring/Summer 1969)Google Scholar.

11 Berman, Harold J., On the Teaching of Law in the Liberal Arts Curriculum (Brooklyn, NY: Foundation Press, 1956)Google Scholar.

12 Berman, Harold J., The Nature and Functions of Law (Brooklyn, NY: Foundation Press, 1958)Google Scholar; with William R. Greiner and Samir N. Saliba, 6th rev. ed. (New York: Foundation Press, 2004).

13 Berman, Harold J., ed., Talks on American Law (New York: Random House, 1961)Google Scholar; Portuguese translation published in Rio de Janeiro, 1963; Arabic translation published in Cairo, 1964; French translation published in Paris, 1965; Spanish translation published in Chile and Mexico, 1965; Vietnamese translation published in Saigon, 1968; Japanese translation published in Tokyo, 1963 and 1969.

14 Berman, Harold J., The Interaction of Law and Religion (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1974)Google Scholar.

15 Berman, Harold J., Faith and Order: The Reconciliation of Law and Religion (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1993Google Scholar; repr. ed., Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1996).

16 Berman, Harold J., Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983)Google Scholar.

17 Berman, Harold J., Law and Revolution II: The Impact of the Protestant Reformations on the Western Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Harvard Law School Library, Collections, the Red Set, accessed January 1, 2013, http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/collections/red_set/index.html.

19 Emory Libraries, EmoryFindingAids, Harold J. Berman Papers, 1938–2007, accessed January 1, 2013, http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/L-027/; Zotero, Harold J. Berman Collection, accessed January 1, 2013, https://www.zotero.org/harold_j_berman/items.

20 Witte, John Jr. and Alexander, Frank S., eds., The Weightier Matters of the Law: Essays on Law and Religion in Tribute to Harold J. Berman (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Butler, William E., Maggs, Peter B., and Quigley, John B. Jr., eds., Law after Revolution: Essays on Socialist Law in Honor of Harold J. Berman (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Press, 1988)Google Scholar; and Hunter, ed., The Integrative Jurisprudence of Harold J. Berman.

21 “A Conference on the Work of Harold J. Berman,” Emory Law Journal 42 (1993): 419–589Google Scholar; “The Foundations of Law,” Emory Law Journal 54 (2005): 1–376Google Scholar; “In Praise of a Legal Polymath: A Special Issue Dedicated to the Memory of Harold J. Berman (1918–2007),” Emory Law Journal 57 (2008): 1393–469Google Scholar.

22 See sources in note 9 above. See further Berman, Harold J., “The Challenge of Soviet Law,” Harvard Law Review 62 (December 1948 and January 1949): 220–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 449–66; “The Law of the Soviet State,” Soviet Studies 6 (January 1955): 225–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Suggestions for Future U.S. Policy on Communist Trade,” Export Trade and Shipper 35 (July 16, 1956): 11–12Google Scholar; “Negotiating Commercial Transactions with Soviet Customers,” Aspects of East-West Trade, American Management Association Report, no. 45 (1960): 68–75Google Scholar; “The Dilemma of Soviet Law Reform,” Harvard Law Review 76 (March 1963): 929–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Law in American Democracy and Under Soviet Communism,” New Hampshire Bar Journal 5, no. 3 (April 1963): 105–13Google Scholar; “Soviet Law Reform and its Significance for Soviet International Relations,” in Law, Foreign Policy and the East-West Detente, ed. McWhinney, Edward (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), 3–17Google Scholar; “Law as an Instrument of Peace in U.S.-Soviet Relations,” Stanford Law Review 22 (1970): 943–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 This is the central thesis of his Law and Revolution series.

24 See esp. Berman, Harold J., “Toward an Integrative Jurisprudence: Politics, Morality, History,” California Law Review 76 (1988): 779–801CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and elaboration in Faith and Order, 239–310. See analysis in Teachout, Peter, “‘Complete Achievement’: Integrity of Vision and Performance in Berman's Jurisprudence,” in Hunter, ed., The Integrative Jurisprudence of Harold J. Berman, 75–98Google Scholar. Already in his 1958 edition of The Nature and Functions of Law, 25ff., Berman had formed his basic, three-part analytical framework for jurisprudence, combining natural law, legal positivism, and historical jurisprudence.

25 Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996)Google Scholar.

26 Berman, Harold J., “Law and Religion in the Development of a World Order,” Sociological Analysis: A Journal in the Sociology of Religion 52 (Spring 1991): 27–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Law and Logos,” DePaul Law Review 44 (Fall 1994): 143–65Google Scholar; “The Tri-Une God of History,” The Living Pulpit (April 1999): 18–19Google ScholarPubMed; “World Law in the New Millennium,” Twenty-First Century 52 (April 1999): 4–11Google Scholar (in Chinese); “The God of History,” The Living Pulpit (July–September 2001): 27; “Integrative Jurisprudence and World Law,” in Atienza, Manuel et al. , Rechtstheorie: Theorie des Rechts und der Gesellschaft: Festschrift für Werner Krawietz zum 70. Geburtstag (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2003), 3–16Google Scholar; “The Holy Spirit: The God of History,” The Living Pulpit (April–June 2004): 32–33; “Faith and Law in a Multicultural World,” in Religion in Global Civil Society, ed. Juergensmeyer, Mark (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 69–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “World Law: An Ecumenical Jurisprudence of the Holy Spirit,” Theology Today 63 (October 2006): 365–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 This is based in part on my memory of a conversation with Professor Berman after his return from China. These same sentiments are conveyed in a newspaper article about this trip. See Meredith Hobbs, “Translating Western Law into Chinese; Emory Professor Harold J. Berman Toured China, Speaking to Halls Packed with Chinese Students,” Daily Report 117 (Fulton County, GA) (June 1, 2006): 1.

28 Berman, Faith and Order, 319–22.

29 Berman and I sometimes did devotions together, and I remember spending weeks discussing the meaning of these quoted statements, which in his view said a lot about the dialogical nature of God.

30 See Berman, Law and Language, 161.

31 Galatians 3:28; Ephesians 2:14–15; Colossians 3:10–11. See also Witte, John Jr., “A New Concordance of Discordant Canons: Harold J. Berman on Law and Religion,” Emory Law Journal 42 (1993): 523–60Google Scholar, at 531.

32 See sources in note 26, and Tibor Várady's afterword, “From Babel to Pentecost,” in Law and Language, 163–85.

33 See Berman, Justice in the U.S.S.R., 15–24; Faith and Order, 239, 280; Law and Revolution, 538, 546. For criticisms of Bentham, see Harold J. Berman, “World Law and the Crisis of the Western Legal Tradition,” the William Timbers Lecture, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, April 21, 2005 (unpublished, on file in Emory Law School Library archives).

34 See Berman, Faith and Order, 314, 381. For similar criticisms of Emil Brunner, see Berman, Interaction, 81–91.

35 See Berman, Law and Revolution, 144–48; Law and Revolution II, 100–30; Faith and Order, 170ff.

36 See Berman, Law and Revolution, 132; Law and Revolution II, 77–80.

37 Berman, Interaction, 113; “Law and Religion in the Development of World Order,” 35.

38 Berman, Faith and Order, 13.

39 See Berman, Interaction, 119–20; Law and Revolution, 166–72.

40 See a good summary in the introduction to Berman, Law and Revolution II, 1–28.

41 This is Hugo Grotius' phrase, which Berman has often used in personal conversations. See Hugo Grotius, “[The Poem] Het Beroep van Advocaat [The Calling of the Advocate] (February 18, 1602),” reprinted in Grotius, Hugo, Anthologia Grotiana (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1955)Google Scholar, 33. See Berman, Faith and Order, 351; “The Prophetic, Pastoral, and Priestly Vocation of the Lawyer,” The NICM Journal 2 (1977): 5–9Google Scholar.

42 See Berman, Harold J., “The Crisis of the Western Legal Tradition,” Creighton Law Review 9 (1975): 252–65Google Scholar; “The Moral Crisis of the Western Legal Tradition and the Weightier Matters of the Law,” Criterion 19, no. 2 (1980): 15–23Google Scholar; “The Crisis of Legal Education in America,” Boston College Law Review 26 (1985): 347–52Google Scholar.

43 See, e.g., Rosenstock-Huessy, Eugen, Speech and Reality (Norwich, VT: Argo Books, 1970)Google Scholar; The Christian Future, or The Modern Mind Outrun (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1946)Google ScholarPubMed; Out of Revolution: Autobiography of Western Man, introduction by Harold J. Berman (Providence, RI: Berg, 1993). For Berman's assessment of his mentor, see, e.g., Berman, Harold J., “Renewal and Continuity: The Great Revolutions and the Western Tradition,” in Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy: Studies in His Life and Thought, eds., Bryant, M. Darrol and Huessy, Hans R. (Lewiston, NY: Edward Mellen Press, 1986): 19–29Google Scholar; “Recollections of Eugen [Rosenstock-Huessy], 1936–1940,” March 29, 1999 (unpublished, on file in the Emory Law School Library archives).

44 Letter from Harold J. Berman to Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy, April 17, 1966 (on file in the Emory Law School Library archives).

45 The first prominent discussion of law and literature in American legal scholarship came with Judge Cardozo's essay, “Law and Literature,” in his 1931 collection, Law and Literature, and Other Essays and Addresses (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co, 1931), 3–40Google Scholar. See collection of later materials in Bishin, William R. and Stone, Christopher D., Law, Language, and Ethics: An Introduction to Law and Legal Method (Mineola, NY: Foundation Press, 1972)Google Scholar and White, James Boyd, The Legal Imagination (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973; rev. ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985)Google Scholar, discussed further below.

46 Shapiro, Barbara, “Law and Science in Seventeenth-Century England,” Stanford Law Review 21 (1969)CrossRefGoogle Scholar: 728.

47 See, e.g., Stone, Julius, The Province and Function of Law: Law as Logic, Justice, and Social Control (London: Stevens, 1947)Google Scholar; Radbruch, Gustav, Der Geist des englischen Recht (Heidelberg: A. Rausch, 1946)Google Scholar.

48 Fisher, William W., Horowitz, Morton, and Reed, Thomas, eds., American Legal Realism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Rumble, Wilfred E., American Legal Realism: Skepticism, Reform, and the Judicial Process (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968)Google Scholar.

49 Haines, Charles Grove, The Revival of Natural Law Concepts (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965)Google Scholar; Pound, Roscoe, The Revival of Natural Law (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1942)Google Scholar.

50 Witte, John Jr. and Van der Vyver, Johan D., eds., Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective, 2 vols. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1996)Google Scholar.

51 Lewis, Anthony, “Sir Edward Coke (1552–1633): His Theory of ‘Artificial Reason’ as a Context for Modern Basic Legal Theory,” Law Quarterly Review 84 (1968)Google Scholar: 330.

52 Berman, Law and Revolution, 44ff.; Hall, Jerome, Comparative Law and Social Theory (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963)Google Scholar, 78ff. See also Berman, Law and Language, chapter 2.

53 See further Witte, John Jr., introduction to The Teachings of Modern Christianity on Law, Politics, and Human Nature, eds. Witte, John Jr. and Alexander, Frank S., 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006)Google Scholar, xx–xxxvii.

54 See, e.g., Posner, Richard A., “The Present Situation in Legal Scholarship,” Yale Law Journal 90 (1981): 1113–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Clark, Robert C., “The Interdisciplinary Study of Legal Evolution,” Yale Law Journal 90 (1981): 1238–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Symposium, “American Legal Scholarship: Directions and Dilemmas,” Journal of Legal Education 33 (1983): 403–11Google Scholar.

55 Hull, N. E. H., Roscoe Pound & Karl Llewellyn: Search for an American Jurisprudence (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 8–10Google Scholar.

56 Ibid., 9.

57 Ibid., 10–11.

58 See Berman, Law and Language, 162.

59 Ibid., 48.

60 Berman, Harold J., “Divorce and Domestic Relations in Soviet Law,” Virginia Law Weekly 2, no. 2 (April 1950): 28–33Google Scholar; “Soviet Planning,” Atlantic Monthly, December 1951, 11–12, 14; “The Soviet Family,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1952, 18–20; Berman, Harold J. and Kerner, Miroslav, “Soviet Military Discipline,” Military Review 32, no. 3 (June 1952): 19–29Google Scholar; Berman and Kerner, “Soviet Military Discipline,” Military Review 32, no. 4 (July 1952): 3–15Google Scholar; Harold J. Berman, “The Soviet Worker,” Atlantic Monthly, July 1952, 8–10; “The Soviet Soldier,” Atlantic Monthly, September 1952, 4, 6, 8; “The Soviet Peasant,” Atlantic Monthly, March 1953, 15–18; “Soviet Education,” Atlantic Monthly, April 1953, 16–19; “Soviet Trade,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1954, 14–17; “Real Property Actions in Soviet Law,” Tulane Law Review 29 (June 1955): 687–96Google Scholar; “Impressions of Moscow,” Harvard Law School Bulletin 7, no. 3 (December 1955): 7–8Google Scholar; “The Current Movement for Law Reform in the Soviet Union,” American Slavic and East European Review 15 (April 1956): 179–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Soviet Legal Reforms,” The Nation 182, June 30, 1956, 546–48; “Soviet Law and Government,” Modern Law Review 21 (January 1958): 19–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Limited Rule of Law,” Christian Science Monitor, April 29, 1958, 9; “The Devil and Soviet Russia,” The American Scholar 27 (Spring 1958): 147–52Google Scholar.

61 Harold J. Berman, “The Problems That Unite Us,” The Nation 192, February 18, 1961, 132; see also, interview by Michael J. Ryan, “Berman: Losing Enemies by Making Friends,” Harvard Law Record (February 25, 1965): 5–6.

62 Berman, Harold J., “Thinking Ahead: East-West Trade,” Harvard Business Review 32, no. 5 (1954): 147–58Google Scholar; “The Legal Framework of Trade Between Planned and Market Economies”; “Negotiating Commercial Transactions with Soviet Customers.”

63 Berman, Harold J., “The Comparison of Soviet and American Law,” Indiana Law Journal 34 (1959)Google Scholar: 559ff.; “Law in American Democracy and under Soviet Communism”; Berman, Harold J. and Spindler, James W., “Soviet Comrades' Courts,” Washington Law Review 38 (1963): 842–910Google Scholar.

64 Berman, Harold J., “Soviet Perspectives on Chinese Law,” in Contemporary Chinese Law, ed. Cohen, Jerome A. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 313–28Google Scholar; Cohen, Susan and Russell, Malcolm, “A Comparison of the Chinese and Soviet Codes of Criminal Law and Procedure,” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 73 (Spring 1982): 238–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harold J. Berman, “The Role of Law in Trade Relations Between the United States and Japan,” A Talk Given to the Industrial Association in Osaka May 23, 1981, and to the Industrial Law Center in Tokyo May 27, 1981 (unpublished, on file in Emory Law School Library archives); Berman, Harold J. and Whiting, Van R. Jr., “Impressions of Cuban Law,” The American Journal of Comparative Law 28 (Summer 1980): 475–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 See Berman, Harold J., “A Linguistic Approach to the Soviet Codification of Criminal Law and Procedure,” in Codification in the Communist World, eds. Barry, Donald D., Feldbrugge, F. J. M., and Lasok, Dominic (Leiden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1975), 39–52Google Scholar. See Berman's earlier work, Soviet Criminal Law and Procedure; “Principles of Soviet Criminal Law,” Yale Law Journal 56 (May 1947): 803–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berman, Harold J. and Hunt, Donald H., “Criminal Law and Psychiatry: The Soviet Solution,” Stanford Law Review 2 (1950): 635–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 Quoted by Clark, Robert C., preface to “A Conference on the Work of Harold J. Berman,” Emory Law Journal 42 (1993)Google Scholar: 428.

67 April 16, 1960, quoted in Clark, “Preface,” 430–31.

68 See Griswold, Erwin N., preface to “A Conference on the Work of Harold J. Berman,” Emory Law Journal 42 (1993): 424–26Google Scholar.

69 In a letter to his mentor, Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy, dated September 3, 1963, Berman wrote: “I am particularly anxious to have your opinions on the first chapter ‘Law and Language.’” (on file in the Emory Law School Library archives).

70 See Berman, Law and Language, 47.

71 Ibid., 38.

72 Ibid.

73 Ibid., 44.

74 Ibid., 61.

75 Ibid., 62.

76 Ibid., 63.

77 Ibid.

78 Ibid., 92.

79 Ibid., 129.

80 Ibid., 143.

81 Berman, Law and Revolution, 2–3.

82 Ibid., 5.

83 Ibid., 60.

84 Ibid., 61–62.

85 Ibid., chap. 5.

86 Ibid., chap. 2 (political analysis) and chap. 3 (institutions and analytical tools).

87 Ibid., 131ff.

88 Ibid., 127–31.

89 Ibid., chap. 2.

90 Hill, Jane H. and Mannheim, Bruce, “Language and World View,” Annual Review of Anthropology 21 (1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar: 384.

91 Bartmanski, Dominik, “How to Become an Iconic Social Thinker,” European Journal of Social Theory 15 (2012): 433–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

92 Brunt, Lodewijk, “Thinking About Ethnography,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 28 (October 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar: 502.

93 Hill and Mannheim, “Language and World View,” 383–85.

94 See Berman, Law and Language, chaps. 2 and 3.

95 Murray, Jeffrey W., “Kenneth Burke: A Dialogue of Motives,” Philosophy & Rhetoric 35, no. 1 (2002): 31–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, Philosophical Investigations, trans. Anscombe, G. E. M. (Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1953)Google Scholar; see Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, trans. Ramsey, Frank P. and Ogden, C. K. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1922)Google Scholar for Wittgenstein's earlier, partly repudiated reference theory of meaning. See Ayer, A. J., Language, Truth, and Logic (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936)Google Scholar for a traditional Anglo-American account of language as simple reference between word and thing.

97 Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Truth and Method, trans. Weinsheimer, Joel and Marshall, Donald G., 2nd rev. ed. (New York: Continuum, 2000)Google Scholar; originally published as Warheit und Methode (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1960)Google Scholar.

98 See Stein, Peter, Legal Evolution: The Story of an Idea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980)Google Scholar and Symposium, “Savigny in Modern Comparative Perspective,” American Journal of Comparative Law (Winter 1989): 1–169Google Scholar.

99 See Berman, Law and Language, chap. 2, part 1.

100 Cohen, Saul, “Book Reviews,” UCLA Law Review 11 (1964)Google Scholar: 461.

101 Currie, Brainerd, “Book Reviews,” Journal of Legal Education 17 (1964): 227–30Google Scholar; Prager, Susan Westerberg, “David Mellinkoff: An Affectionate Tribute,” UCLA Law Review 33 (June 1985): 1247–49Google Scholar.

102 Macleish, Archibald, “Book Reviews,” Harvard Law Review 78 (1964)Google Scholar: 490.

103 Mellinkoff, David, “Plain English: Why I Wrote The Language of the Law,” Michigan Bar Journal 79 (January 2000)Google Scholar: 28.

104 Mellinkoff, David, The Language of Law (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963), 136–79Google Scholar, 230–31, 265.

105 Ibid., 24.

106 Ibid., 285.

107 Berman, Law and Language, 103.

108 See, e.g., the papers collected in Wagner, Anne et al. , Interpretation, Law and the Construction of Meaning: Collected Papers on Legal Interpretation in Theory, Adjudication and Political Practice (Dordrecht: Springer, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Cotterill, Janet, ed., Language in the Legal Process (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar for important contributions that are not addressed in the sample here.

109 Collected in vol. 58, nos. 1 & 2 of the Southern California Law Review (1985).

110 White, James Boyd, Legal Imagination: Studies in the Nature of Legal Thought and Expression (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973)Google Scholar.

111 White, James Boyd, Living Speech: Resisting the Empire of Force (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 1–13Google Scholar.

112 Ibid., 196–206. White also submits American constitutional case law to critical, rhetorical analysis in “The Judicial Opinion as a Form of Life,” part 2 in Justice as Translation: An Essay in Cultural and Legal Criticism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990)Google Scholar.

113 White, Living Speech, 206–11.

114 White, Justice as Translation, 27–33.

115 Ibid., 34ff.

116 Ibid., 267.

117 Ball, Milner S., The Promise of American Law: A Theological, Humanistic View of Legal Process (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1981)Google Scholar, chap. 4.

118 Ball, Milner S., Lying Down Together: Law, Metaphor, and Theology (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985)Google Scholar, chaps. 2 & 4.

119 See, e.g., the diverse and provocative essays in Binder, Guyora and Weisberg, Richard, Literary Criticisms of Law (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

120 Posner, Richard A., Law and Literature, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 382–85Google Scholar. See also Edwards, Harry T., “The Growing Disjunction between Legal Education and the Legal Profession,” Michigan Law Review 91 (1992): 34–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Edwards, Harry T., “The Growing Disjunction Between Legal Education and the Legal Profession: A Postscript,” Michigan Law Review 91 (1993): 2191–219CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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123 Solan, Lawrence M., The Language of Judges (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; The Language of Statutes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010)Google ScholarPubMed.

124 Mark Adler, “The Plain Language Movement,” in Oxford Handbook, 67–68.

125 Ibid., 71–72.

126 See Berman, Law and Language, chap. 3.

127 See esp. Berman, Interaction, 31–39.

128 Gail Stygall, “Discourse in the US Courtroom,” in Oxford Handbook, 369–70.

129 Jan Engberg, “Word Meaning and the Problem of a Globalized Legal Order,” in Oxford Handbook, 176–81.

130 Michel Bastarache, “Bilingual Interpretation Rules as a Component of Language Rights in Canada,” in Oxford Handbook, 170ff.

131 Ibid., 182–85.

132 Karen McAuliffe, “Language and Law in the European Union: The Multilingual Jurisprudence of the ECJ,” in Oxford Handbook, 204–12.

133 Solan, Lawrence M., “The Interpretation of Multilingual Statutes by the European Court of Justice,” Brooklyn Journal of International Law 34 (2009): 286–94Google Scholar.

134 See note 2 above. Berman loved to quote the old adage of the scholar: “Though my sins be like scarlet, let my works be read.”

135 See Harold J. Berman, foreword to Christian Perspectives on Legal Thought, eds. McConnell, Michael W., Cochran, Robert F. Jr., and Carmella, Angela C. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001)Google Scholar, xii.

136 See Witte, John Jr., “The Study of Law and Religion in the United States: An Interim Report,” Ecclesiastical Law Journal 14 (2012): 327–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

137 Matthew 23:23. Berman often used this biblical trope. See, e.g., Harold J. Berman, “‘The Weightier Matters of the Law’: Address to the Opening of Vermont Law School” (1974), repr. in Royalton Review 9, nos. 1 & 2 (1975): 32; “The Weightier Matters of the Law,” in Solzhenitsyn at Harvard, ed. Berman, Ronald (Washington, DC: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1980), 99–113Google Scholar; “The Moral Crisis of the Western Legal Tradition and the Weightier Matters of the Law.”