Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T11:57:31.291Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Open-plan office noise is stressful: multimodal stress detection in a simulated work environment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 June 2021

Elizabeth (Libby) J. Sander Open the ORCID record for Elizabeth (Libby) J. Sander [Opens in a new window] ,
Cecelia Marques ,
James Birt ,
Matthew Stead  and
Oliver Baumann
Elizabeth (Libby) J. Sander*
Affiliation:
Bond Business School, Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia
Cecelia Marques
Affiliation:
Faculty of Society & Design, Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia
James Birt
Affiliation:
Faculty of Society & Design, Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia
Matthew Stead
Affiliation:
Resonate Consultants, Adelaide, Australia
Oliver Baumann
Affiliation:
Faculty of Society & Design, Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: lsander@bond.edu.au
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-2019)-induced changes in the workplace present a timely opportunity for human resource management practitioners to consider and remediate the deleterious effects of noise, a commonly cited complaint of employees working in open-plan office (OPO) environments. While self-reports suggest that OPO noise is perceived as a stressor, there is little experimental research comprehensively investigating the effects of noise on employees in terms of their cognitive performance, physiological indicators of stress, and affect. Employing a simulated office setting, we compared the effects of a typical OPO auditory environment to a quieter private office auditory environment on a range of objective and subjective measures of well-being and performance. While OPO noise did not reduce immediate cognitive task performance compared to the quieter environment, it did reduce psychological well-being as evidenced by self-reports of mood, facial expressions of emotion, and physiological indicators of stress in the form of heartrate and skin conductivity. Our research highlights the importance of using a multimodal approach to assess the impact of workplace stressors such as noise. Such an approach will allow HR practitioners to make data-driven recommendations about the design and modification of workspaces to minimize negative effects and support employee well-being.

Keywords

HRM strategiesorganizational behaviorsimulation studieswellbeing and psychosocial risk factors
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 27 , Special Issue 6: Physical and virtual work environments during COVID-19 , November 2021 , pp. 1021 - 1037
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acun, V., & Yilmazer, S. (2018). A grounded theory approach to investigate the perceived soundscape of open-plan offices. Applied Acoustics, 131, 28–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayoko, O. B., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2020). The physical environment of office work: Future open plan offices. Australian Journal of Management, 45(3), 488–506.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 8, 47–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banbury, S. P., & Berry, D. C. (2005). Office noise and employee concentration: Identifying causes of disruption and potential improvements. Ergonomics, 48(1), 25–37.Google Scholar
Baumann, O., & Sander, E. J. (2021). Psychological impacts of remote working under social distancing restrictions. In Wheatley, D., Hardill, I. & Buglass, S. (Eds.) , Handbook of research on remote work and worker well-being in the post-COVID-19 era (pp. 1–17). IGI Global). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-6754-8.ch001.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Ego depletion and self-regulation failure: A resource model of self-control. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(2), 281–284. doi: 10.1097/01.ALC.0000060879.61384.A4.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (2000). Ego depletion: A resource model of volition, self-regulation, and controlled processing. Social Cognition, 18(2), 130–150.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 351–355.Google Scholar
Beaman, C. P. (2005). Auditory distraction from low-intensity noise: A review of the consequences for learning and workplace environments. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19(8), 1041–1064.Google Scholar
Birenboim, A., Dijst, M., Scheepers, F., Poelman, M., & Helbich, M. (2019). Wearables and location tracking technologies for mental-state sensing in outdoor environments. The Professional Geographer, 71(3), 1–13.Google Scholar
Bodin Danielsson, C., Chungkham, H. S., Wulff, C., & Westerlund, H. (2014). Office design's impact on sick leave rates. Ergonomics, 57(2), 139–147. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2013.871064.Google Scholar
Brennan, A., Jasdeep, S. C., & Kline, T. (2002). Traditional versus open office design: A longitudinal field study. Environment and Behavior, 34, 279–299.Google Scholar
Calvo, M. G., Avero, P., Fernández-Martín, A., & Recio, G. (2016). Recognition thresholds for static and dynamic emotional faces. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 16(8), 1186–1200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, T. Y., Jain, R. M., Wang, C. S., & Chan, C. C. (2003). Effects of occupational noise exposure on blood pressure. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45(12), 1289–1296.Google Scholar
Chou, C., Lu, C., & Huang, R. (2016). Effects of different ambient environments on human responses and work performance. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing, 7(6), 865–874.Google Scholar
Christensen, L. B., Johnson, R. B., & Turner, L. A. (2014). Research methods, design, and analysis (14th ed.). Boston: Pearson.Google Scholar
Clausen, T., Kristiansen, J., Hansen, J. V., Pejtersen, J. H., & Burr, H. (2013). Exposure to disturbing noise and risk of long-term sickness absence among office workers: A prospective analysis of register-based outcomes. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 86(7), 729–734.Google Scholar
Cohen, S. (1980). Aftereffects of stress on human performance and social behavior: A review of research and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 88(1), 82–108.Google Scholar
Colenberg, S., Jylhä, T., & Arkesteijn, M. (2021). The relationship between interior office space and employee health and well-being – a literature review. Building Research & Information, 49(3), 352–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colle, H. A., & Welsh, A. (1976). Acoustic masking in primary memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15, 17–31.Google Scholar
Danielsson, C. B., & Bodin, L. (2008). Office type in relation to health, well-being, and job satisfaction among employees. Environment and Behavior, 40(5), 636–668.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Or, The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. John Murray, Albemarle Street; 1859.Google Scholar
Das, S., & Yamada, K. (2013). Evaluating instantaneous psychological stress from emotional composition of a facial expression. Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence and Intelligent Informatics, 17(4), 480–492.Google Scholar
Davis, M. C., Leach, D. J., & Clegg, C. W. (2011). The physical environment of the office: Contemporary and emerging issues. In Hodgkinson, G. P. & Ford, J. K. (Eds.) , International review of industrial and organizational psychology: Vol. 26. International review of industrial and organizational psychology 2011 (pp. 193–237). Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Delle Macchie, S., Secchi, S., & Cellai, G. (2018). Acoustic issues in open plan offices: A typological analysis. Buildings, 8(11), 161.Google Scholar
Di Blasio, S., Shtrepi, L., Puglisi, G. E., & Astolfi, A. (2019). A cross-sectional survey on the impact of irrelevant speech noise on annoyance, mental health and well-being, performance and occupants' behavior in shared and open-plan offices. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, 280.Google Scholar
Doggett, R., Sander, E., Birt, J., Ottley, M., & Baumann, O. (2021). Using virtual reality to evaluate the impact of room acoustics on cognitive performance and well-being. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 2:620503. doi: 10.3389/frvir.2021.620503.Google Scholar
Dubreuil, B. (2010). Punitive emotions and norm violations. Philosophical Explorations, 13(1), 35–50.Google Scholar
Ekhsan, M. (2019). The influence job satisfaction and organizational commitment on employee turnover intention. Journal of Business, Management, and Accounting, 1, 48–55.Google Scholar
Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & O'Sullivan, M. (1988). Smiles when lying. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(3), 414–420.Google Scholar
Elsbach, K. D., & Pratt, M. G. (2007). The physical environment in organizations. Academy of Management Annals, 1(1), 181–224.Google Scholar
Everly, G.S., & Lating, J.M. (2013). A clinical guide to the treatment of the human stress response. (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer. 485 p. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-5538-7.Google Scholar
Farnsworth, B. (2019). Facial Action Coding System (FACS) − A Visual Guidebook. imotions. https://imotions.com/blog/facial-action-coding-system/.Google Scholar
Feldman, E., & Greenway, D. (2020). It's a matter of time: The role of temporal perceptions in emotional experiences of work interruptions. Group & Organization Management, 46(1), 70–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, C. D. (1993). Boredom at work: A neglected concept. Human Relations, 43, 395–417.Google Scholar
Fisk, W. J. (2000). Health and productivity gains from better indoor environments and their relationship with building energy efficiency. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 25(1), 537–566.Google Scholar
Fisk, W. J., & Rosenfeld, A. H. (1997). Estimates of improved productivity and health from better indoor environments. Indoor Air, 7(3), 158–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flamme, G. A., Stephenson, M. R., Deiters, K., Tatro, A., van Gessel, D., Geda, K., … McGregor, K. (2012). Typical noise exposure in daily life. International Journal of Audiology, 51(Suppl 1(0 1)), S3–S11.Google Scholar
Ganster, D. C., & Rosen, C. C. (2013). Work stress and employee health: A multidisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 39, 1085–1122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2006). Quantifying facial expression recognition across viewing conditions. Vision Research, 46(8–9), 1253–1262. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2005.10.028.Google Scholar
Guski, R. (1999). Personal and social variables as co- determinants of noise annoyance. Noise & Health, 3, 45–56.Google Scholar
Haapakangas, A., Hongisto, V., Hyönä, J., Kokko, J., & Keränen, J. (2014). Effects of unattended speech on performance and subjective distraction: The role of acoustic design in open-plan offices. Applied Acoustics, 86, 1–16.Google Scholar
Haka, M., Haapakangas, A., Keränen, J., Hakala, J., Keskinen, E., & Hongisto, V. (2009). Performance effects and subjective disturbance of speech in acoustically different office types − a laboratory experiment. Indoor Air, 19, 454–467.Google Scholar
Harley, J. M.. (2016). Measuring emotions: A survey of cutting edge methodologies used in computer-based learning environment research. In Tettegah, S. Y., & Gartmeier, M. (Eds.) , Emotions, technology, design, and learning (pp. 89–114). Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801856-9.00005-0.Google Scholar
Heinzerling, D., Schiavon, S., Webster, T., & Arens, E. (2013). Indoor environmental quality assessment models: A literature review and a proposed weighting and classification scheme. Building and Environment, 70, 210–222.Google Scholar
Herman, A. M., Critchley, H. D., & Duka, T. (2018). The role of emotions and physiological arousal in modulating impulsive behaviour. Biological Psychology, 133, 30–43. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.01.014.Google Scholar
Ho, H., & Kuvaas, B. (2020). Human resource management systems, employee well-being, and firm performance from the mutual gains and critical perspectives: The well-being paradox. Human Resource Management, 59(3), 235–253.Google Scholar
Hodzic, S., Kubicek, B., Uhlig, L., & Korunka, C. (2021). Activity-based flexible offices: Effects on work-related outcomes in a longitudinal study. Ergonomics, 64(4), 455–473. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2020.1850882.Google Scholar
Hoogendoorn, K. (1973). How to cope with noise in open plan offices. Building Research and Practice, 1(4), 202–206.Google Scholar
Huettermann, H., & Bruch, H. (2019). Mutual gains? Health-related HRM, collective well-being and organizational performance. Journal of Management Studies, 56(6), 1045–1072.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iannace, G., Ciaburro, G., & Trematerra, A. (2018). Heating, ventilation, and air condition (HVAC) noise detection in open-plan offices using recursive partitioning. Buildings, 8(12), 169.Google Scholar
Ising, H., & Kruppa, B. (2004). Health effects caused by noise: Evidence in the literature from the past 25 years. Noise & Health, 6(22), 5–13.Google Scholar
Jack, R. E., Sun, W., Delis, I., Garrod, O. G. B., & Schyns, P. G. (2016). Four not six: Revealing culturally common facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(6), 708–730.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jahncke, H., Hygge, S., Halin, N., Green, A. M., & Dimberg, K. (2011). Open-plan office noise: Cognitive performance and restoration. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31(4), 373–382.Google Scholar
Jik Lee, P., & Griffin, M. J. (2013). Combined effect of noise and vibration produced by high-speed trains on annoyance in buildings. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 133(4), 2126–2135.Google Scholar
Kaarlela-Tuomaala, A., Helenius, R., Keskinen, E., & Hongisto, V. (2009). Effects of acoustic environment on work in private office rooms and open-plan offices – longitudinal study during relocation. Ergonomics, 52(11), 1423–1444.Google Scholar
Kim, H.-G., Cheon, E.-J., Bai, D.-S., Lee, Y. H., & Koo, B.-H. (2018). Stress and heart rate variability: Ameta-analysis and review of the literature. Psychiatry Investigation, 15, 235–245. doi: 10.30773/pi.2017.08.17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, J., & De Dear, R. (2013). Workspace satisfaction: The privacy-communication trade-off in open-plan offices. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 36, 18–26.Google Scholar
Konnikova, M. (2014). The open-office trap. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/the-open-office-trapGoogle Scholar
Kostallari, K., Parizet, E., Chevret, P., Amato, J.-N., & Galy, E. (2010). Irrelevant speech effect in open plan offices: Comparison of two models explaining the decrease in performance by speech intelligibility and attempt to reduce interindividual differences of the mental workload by task customisation. Applied Acoustics, 161, 107180.Google Scholar
Kristiansen, J. (2010). Is noise exposure in non-industrial work environments associated with increased sickness absence? Noise and Vibration Worldwide, 41(5), 9–16.Google Scholar
Kristiansen, J., Mathiesen, L., Nielsen, P. K., Hansen, ÅM, Shibuya, H., Petersen, H. M., … Søgaard, K. (2009). Stress reactions to cognitively demanding tasks and open-plan office noise. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 82(5), 631–641.Google Scholar
Kulke, L., Feyerabend, D., & Schacht, A. (2020). A comparison of the Affectiva iMotions facial expression analysis software with EMG for identifying facial expressions of emotion. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 329.Google Scholar
Lamb, S., & Kwok, K. (2016). A longitudinal investigation of work environment stressors on the performance and wellbeing of office workers. Applied Ergonomics, 52, 104–111.Google Scholar
Langer, J., Taylour, J., & Smith, A. P. (2020). Noise exposure, satisfaction with the working environment, and the wellbeing process. ICBEN 2020.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Leaman, A., & Bordass, B. (1999). Productivity in buildings: The ‘killer'variables. Building Research & Information, 27(1), 4–19.Google Scholar
Lee, Y., & Aletta, F. (2019). Acoustical planning for workplace health and well-being: A case study in four open-plan offices. Building Acoustics, 26, 207–220.Google Scholar
Lee, P. J., Lee, B. K., Jeon, J. Y., Zhang, M., & Kang, J. (2016). Impact of noise on self-rated job satisfaction and health in open-plan offices: A structural equation modelling approach. Ergonomics, 59(2), 222–234.Google Scholar
Lee, Y., Nelson, E. C., Flynn, M. J., & Jackman, J. S. (2020). Exploring soundscaping options for the cognitive environment in an open-plan office. Building Acoustics, 27, 185–202.Google Scholar
Lerner, J. S., Dahl, R. E., Hariri, A. R., & Taylor, S. E. (2007). Facial expressions of emotion reveal neuroendocrine and cardiovascular stress responses. Biological Psychiatry, 61(2), 253–260. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.016.Google Scholar
Liebl, A., Assfalg, A., & Schlittmeier, S. J. (2016). The effects of speech intelligibility and temporal–spectral variability on performance and annoyance ratings. Applied Acoustics, 110, 170–175.Google Scholar
Maher, A., & Von Hippel, C. (2005). Individual differences in employee reactions to open-plan offices. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25(2), 219–229.Google Scholar
Mayo, L. M., & Heilig, M. (2019). In the face of stress: Interpreting individual differences in stress-induced facial expressions. Neurobiology of Stress, 10, 100166. doi: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2019.100166.Google Scholar
McDuff, D., Karlson, A., Kapoor, A., Roseway, A., & Czerwinski, M. (2012). AffectAura. Proceedings of the 2012 ACM annual conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - CHI '12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehta, R., Zhu, R., & Cheema, A. (2012). Is noise always bad? Exploring the effects of ambient noise on creative cognition. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(4), 784–799.Google Scholar
Muaremi, A., Arnrich, B., & Tröster, G. (2013). Towards measuring stress with smartphones and wearable devices during workday and sleep. BioNanoScience, 3(2), 172–183. doi: 10.1007/s12668-013-0089-2.Google Scholar
Oldham, G. R., & Rotchford, N. L. (1983). Relationships between office characteristics and employee reactions: A study of the physical environment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28(4), 542–556.Google Scholar
Pabst, S., Brand, M., & Wolf, O. T. (2013). Stress and decision making: A few minutes make all the difference. Behavioural Brain Research, 250, 39–45. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.04.046.Google Scholar
Peich, M., Husain, M., & Bays, P. M. (2013). Age-related decline of precision and binding in visual working memory. Psychology and Aging, 28(3), 729–743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pejtersen, J. H., Feveile, H., Christensen, K. B., & Burr, H. (2011). Sickness absence associated with shared and open-plan offices – a national cross sectional questionnaire survey. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 37(5), 376–382.Google Scholar
Perea, M., Panadero, V., Moret-Tatay, C., & Gómez, P. (2012). The effects of inter-letter spacing in visual-word recognition: Evidence with young normal readers and developmental dyslexics. Learning and Instruction, 22(6), 420–430. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.04.001.Google Scholar
Puranik, H., Koopman, J., & Vough, H. C. (2020). Pardon the interruption: An integrative review and future research agenda for research on work interruptions. Journal of Management, 46(6), 806–842.Google Scholar
Reeves, J. P., Knight, A. T., Strong, E. A., Heng, V., Neale, C., Cromie, R., & Vercammen, A. (2019). The application of wearable technology to quantify health and wellbeing: Co-benefits from urban wetlands. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1840.Google Scholar
Salame, P., & Baddeley, A. (1982). Disruption of short-term memory by unattended speech: Implications for the structure of working memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 21, 150–164.Google Scholar
Sander, E. L. J., Caza, A., & Jordan, P. J. (2019). Psychological perceptions matter: Developing the reactions to the physical work environment scale. Building and Environment, 148, 338–347.Google Scholar
Schoonbaert, S., & Grainger, J. (2004). Letter position coding in printed word perception: Effects of repeated and transposed letters. Language and Cognitive Processes, 19(3), 333–367.Google Scholar
Seddigh, A., Berntson, E., Platts, L. G., & Westerlund, H. (2016). Does personality have a different impact on self-rated distraction, job satisfaction, and job performance in different office types? PloS One, 11(5), e0155295.Google Scholar
Senan, T. U., Jelfs, S., & Kohlrausch, A. (2018). Cognitive disruption by noise-vocoded speech stimuli: Effects of spectral variation. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 143(3), 1407–1416.Google Scholar
Smith-Jackson, T. L., & Klein, K. W. (2009). Open-plan offices: Task performance and mental workload. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(2), 279–289.Google Scholar
Stapelberg, N., Neumann, D. L., Shum, D., McConnell, H., & Hamilton-Craig, I. (2018). The sensitivity of 38 heart rate variability measures to the addition of artifact in human and artificial 24-hr cardiac recordings. Annals of Noninvasive Electrocardiology, 23(1), e12483.Google Scholar
Szalma, J. L., & Hancock, P. A. (2011). Noise effects on human performance: A meta-analytic synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 682–707.Google Scholar
Van De Voorde, K., Paauwe, J., & Van Veldhoven, M. (2012). Employee well-being and the HRM–organizational performance relationship: A review of quantitative studies. International Journal of Management Reviews, 14(4), 391–407.Google Scholar
Venetjoki, N., Kaarlela-Tuomaala, A., Keskinen, E., & Hongisto, V. (2006). The effect of speech and speech intelligibility on task performance. Ergonomics, 49(11), 1068–1091.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verhaeghen, P., & Basak, C. (2005). Ageing and switching of the focus of attention in working memory: Results from a modified N-back task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology, 58(1), 134–154.Google Scholar
Verma, J. P. (2015). Repeated measures design for empirical researchers. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Vicario, C. M., Rafal, R. D., Martino, D., & Avenanti, A. (2017). Core, social and moral disgust are bounded: A review on behavioral and neural bases of repugnance in clinical disorders. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 80, 185–200.Google Scholar
Vrijkotte, T. G., van Doornen, L. J., & de Geus, E. J. (2000). Effects of work stress on ambulatory blood pressure, heart rate, and heart rate variability. Hypertension, 35(4), 880–886. doi: 10.1161/01.hyp.35.4.880.Google Scholar
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070.Google Scholar
Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work.Google Scholar
Wellens, B. T., & Smith, A. P. (2006). Combined workplace stressors and their relationship with mood, physiology, and performance. Work & Stress, 20(3), 245–258. doi: 10.1080/02678370601022712.Google Scholar
Węziak-Białowolska, D., Dong, Z., & McNeely, E. (2018). Turning the mirror on the architects: A study of the open-plan office and work behaviors at an architectural company. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2178.Google Scholar
Yadav, M., & Cabrera, D. (2019). Two simultaneous talkers distract more than one in simulated multi-talker environments, regardless of overall sound levels typical of open-plan offices. Applied Acoustics, 148, 46–54.Google Scholar
Yan, G., Meng, Z., Liu, N., He, L., & Paterson, K. B. (2018). Effects of irrelevant background speech on eye movements during reading. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(6), 1270–1275.Google Scholar
Zhai, J., & Barreto, A. (2006). Stress detection in computer users based on digital signal processing of noninvasive physiological variables. International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2006, 1355–1358. doi: 10.1109/IEMBS.2006.259421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, X., Lian, Z., & Wu, Y. (2017). Human physiological responses to a wooden indoor environment. Physiology & Behavior, 174, 27–34.Google Scholar
Zohar, D., Tzischinski, O., & Epstein, R. (2003). Effects of energy availability on immediate and delayed emotional reactions to work events. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(6), 1082–1093.Google Scholar