National Integration and the Southern Sudan

George W. Shepherd Jr

doi:10.1017/S0022278X00013240

National Integration and the Southern Sudan

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 November 2008

George W. Shepherd Jr

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The question of national unity for the new states of Africa stands at the centre of their political problems. Progress in a variety offields is blocked until they are able to resolve internally the constitutional question of loyalty to a new system of authority which was conceived under colonialism and made a reality through nationalist drives for independence. Africa, more than any other continent, is troubled by the divisions between ethnic, racial, and religious groups who found temporary consensus in the struggle against the common colonial enemy, but who, having achieved independence, find the principle of self-determination now internally a divisive force against a unified national polity and purpose.According to James Coleman and Carl Rosberg, ‘Just as the one-party trend is the most striking feature of the political structure of new African states, so the problems of integration are the major issues and obstacles in the task of nation-building, which is itself the primary preoccupation of the leadership of the new states.’

Type: Articles
Information: The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 4 , Issue 2 , October 1966 , pp. 193 - 212

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00013240 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1966

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References

^{Page 193 note 1} Coleman, James and Rosberg, Carl, Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1964), p. 8.Google Scholar

^{Page 194 note 1} Deutsch, K. W. and Foltz, W.J. (eds.), Nation Building (New York, 1963), pp. 8–10Google Scholar. For a detailed explanation of these and other factors in national and international integration, see Deutsch, K. W., Political Community at the International Level (New York, 1954).Google Scholar

^{Page 194 note 2} For a brief history of the rise of nationalism and rivalries between northern parties, see Holt, P. M., A Modern History of the Sudan (London, 1963 edn.), pp. 141–61.Google Scholar

^{Page 195 note 1} Gray's, R. Introduction to Oduho, Joseph and Deng, William, The Problems of the Southern Sudan (London, 1963), P. 2.Google Scholar

^{Page 195 note 2} Khartoum Conference on the South, March 1965 documents; speech by Aggrey Jaden (mimeo.), p. 4.

^{Page 195 note 3} William Deng described Jaden's speech as ‘unsuitable’; Khartoum News Service, 31 March 1965, p.9.

^{Page 195 note 4} See MacGaffey, W., ‘The History of Negro Migration in the Northern Sudan’, in The South Western Journal of Anthropology (New Mexico), xvii, 1961.Google Scholar

^{Page 196 note 1} Barbour, K. M., The Republic of the Sudan (London, 1961), p. 88.Google Scholar

^{Page 196 note 2} Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Disturbances in the Southern Sudan during August 1955 (Khartoum, 1956), p. 9.Google Scholar

^{Page 196 note 3} All these three groups of peoples span the borders. But most important cultural affinities with the Uganda and Congo peoples are found among the Nilo-Hamitics and Zanda peoples. ‘The most southerly group extends as far south as central Tanganyika’, according to K. M. Barbour, op. cit. p. 85.

^{Page 197 note 1} Gray, Richard, A History of the Southern Sudan, 1839–1889 (London, 1961), pp. 120–5.Google Scholar

^{Page 197 note 2} Collins, R. O., The Southern Sudan, 1883–1898 (New Haven, 1962), p. 23Google Scholar: ‘In battle the Dinkas often used the Mahdist war cry and frequently carried into battle a green Mahdist flag lent to them by the Mahdi.’ But Collins makes it clear they fought for their own independence, not Mahdism.

^{Page 197 note 3} Major Stigand, Governor Mongulla Province (Upper Nile) wrote in 1919, ‘An administrative change which is sorely needed and must take place before great advances can be made is the complete separation of the Negro provinces of the Sudan from the Arab provinces.’ Khartoum Conference on the South, March 1965 documents; ‘Extracts from Notes’ (mimeo.). This did not become official British policy hut does illustrate the strong feeling of part of the Colonial Service.

^{Page 197 note 4} The first statement of this change is found in a letter from the Civil Secretary dated 16 December 1946; ibid.

^{Page 197 note 5} The Southern Chiefs at this conference appeared most reluctant to commit themselves to sending representatives to the newly created National Assembly. See Proceedings of the Juba Conference on Political Developments of the Southern Sudan (Khartoum, 1947).Google Scholar

^{Page 198 note 1} See Rahim, Muddathir Abdel, ‘The Development of British Policy in the Southern Sudan, 1899–1949’ (Central Archives, Khartoum, 1965), pp. 10–13.Google Scholar

^{Page 198 note 2} For example, the rejection by the Civil Secretary at the Juba Conference of Clement Mboro's suggestion that a Southern Advisory Council be established. See Proceedings of the Juba Conference, p. 10. The alternative of attaching the Southern provinces to Uganda was also open in the early part of the century. This was not done primarily because the Sudan was administered under the Foreign Office, and the influence from Cairo was much against such a step.

^{Page 199 note 1} See Oduho and Deng, op. cit. pp. 49–52.

^{Page 199 note 2} R. O. Collins notes that many British schemes for Southern development were abandoned or moved north, e.g. sugar cane and refining at Malakal. ‘The Sudan Link to the North’, unpublished manuscript.

^{Page 199 note 3} See Rehfisch, F., ‘A Study of Some Southern Migrants in Omdurman’, in Sudan: Notes and Records (Khartoum), 1962, p. 92.Google Scholar

^{Page 199 note 4} Secretariat Round-Table Conference, Khartoum, 1965; ‘Financial Data on the Southern Provinces’ (mimeo.). Until the 5940's, secondary students from the South went to Uganda. As yet, there is no girls' secondary school in the South.

^{Page 200 note 1} This preference of British administrators for western Christian influence was expressed by one during the preliminary discussions to the Juba Conference, 1947. He suggested ‘that we the British, who, whatever our failings, are better qualified than any other race, by tradition and taste and training, to lead primitives up the path of civic progress, are going to stand guard here till the South can dispense with a guard, and are not going to see the South dominated by an Arab civilization in Khartoum, which is more alien to them than our own.’ Letter of 5January 1947 from B.G.A. to the Governor of Equatoria Province; Khartoum Conference on the South, March 1965 documents.

^{Page 200 note 2} The Northern case is presented in Basic Facts About the Sudan (Ministry of Information, Khartoum, 1964)Google Scholar. In all S.A.N.U. documents there are detailed charges against the ‘Arabisation’ of education, which they feel has been motivated primarily by religious and colonial interests. See ‘The Memorandum presented by the Sudan African National Union to the Commission of the O.A.U. for Refugees’ (Kampala, November 2964, mimeo.).

^{Page 201 note 1} The leader of the White Flag League, Au Abdel Latif, was a Muslim of Dinka origin. His first movement was the Sudanese United Tribes Society, founded in 1921. But his support was among the Northern Arabs. See Holt, op. cit. p. 130.

^{Page 201 note 2} See Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Disturbances in the Southern Sudan, p. 16.

^{Page 201 note 3} Ring, Bona M., a leader of the Southern Front, presented this view in a pamphlet, The Causes of Southern Dissension; Khartoum Conference on the South,March 1965 documents.Google Scholar

^{Page 201 note 4} Ibid. p. 5.

^{Page 201 note 5} Oduho and Deng, op. cit. p. 35.

^{Page 202 note 1} See Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Disturbances in the Southern Sudan, pp. 20 and 2.

^{Page 203 note 1} See Basic Facts about the Southern Provinces of the Sudan (Khartoum, 1964), p. 45Google Scholar. This pamphlet was published under military rule.

^{Page 203 note 2} Duncan, T. S. R., The Sudan's Path to Independence (London, 1957), p. 199.Google Scholar

^{Page 203 note 3} Speech of the Prime Minister, Sayed Sir Khalifa, El Khatim, to the Round Table Conference on the South, reported in Morning News (Khartoum), 17 03 1965.Google Scholar

^{Page 203 note 4} See Kershaw, Richard, ‘Sudan's Last Chance in the South’, in Twenty-One: a magazine from Africa (Khartoum), 03 1965, p. 16.Google Scholar

^{Page 204 note 1} Ismael El Azhari, leader of the N.U.P., and Sadig El Mahdi, president of Umma, have both spoken in these terms; see Khartoum Conference on the South, March 1965 documents. Sadig has written a book on ‘The Question of the Southern Sudan’, available only in Arabic (Khartoum, 1964).Google Scholar

^{Page 204 note 2} The Islamic Socialist Front (not to be confused with the Muslim Brothers, Islamic Charter Front) opposed the discussions with the ‘Southern Outlaws’.

^{Page 204 note 3} Khartoum News Service, 3 March 1965, pp. 1–2.

^{Page 205 note 1} Khartoum News Service, 31 03 1965, p. 5.Google Scholar

^{Page 205 note 2} Khartoum News Service published these agreements on 30 March 1965.

^{Page 206 note 1} These two parties were not seated at the Khartoum Conference. However, they became the most acceptable Southern parties after the formation of the Umma-N.U.P. Government.

^{Page 206 note 2} The proposal for a plebiscite was put forward at the Khartoum Conference but rejected by the North.

^{Page 206 note 3} This newspaper was banned in July 1965, but resumed publication early in 1966.

^{Page 207 note 1} The Vigilant (Khartoum), 25 03 1965, pp. 5–6.Google Scholar

^{Page 207 note 2} Khartoum News Service, 31 03 1965, p. 8.Google Scholar

^{Page 207 note 3} Ibid. 19 April, 1965.

^{Page 207 note 4} See Khartoum News Service, 24 December 1965, for a report on Wiliam Deng's tour of the South.

^{Page 208 note 1} Information based upon interviews with S.A.N.U. and Azania leaders in Kampala.

^{Page 208 note 2} Khartoum News Service, 29 December 1965, p. 5.

^{Page 209 note 1} The Morning Post (Khartoum), 13 07 1965Google Scholar; editorial.

^{Page 211 note 1} See Beshir's, Mohammed O. letter to The Times (London), 31 07 1965.Google Scholar

^{Page 211 note 2} Duncan, op. cit. p. 195.

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