Zaïre: the Roots of the Continuing Crisis

Ghislain C. Kabwit

doi:10.1017/S0022278X00005930

Zaïre: the Roots of the Continuing Crisis

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 November 2008

Ghislain C. Kabwit

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The guns have again gone silent in Zaïre. The second war — dubbed Shaba II — in the key mining town of Kolwezi during May 1978, seems to have faded away as rapidly as it started, and has stopped making headlines around the world. However, in its wake, it has left a bitter taste in many mouths. In less than 15 months since Shaba I in March 1977, western intervention – spearheaded this time by French légionnaires and Belgian paratroopers – again pulled the tottering régime of President Mobutu Sese Seko back from the brink. The net result of this military intervention in Zaïre has been to keep Mobutu more firmly entrenched in power than ever.

Type: Articles
Information: The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 17 , Issue 3 , September 1979 , pp. 381 - 407

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00005930 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1979

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References

^{page 381 note 1} Kaufman, Michael T., ‘Mobutu, Shaken At Start of War, Has New Strength Two Months Later’, in The New York Times, 12 05 1977.Google Scholar

^{page 381 note 2} Ibid.

^{page 382 note 1} In strongly identifying himself with the policy of authenticité, the President changed his name in 1971 to Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga, which means ‘a rooster that leaves no hen intact’.

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^{page 383 note 2} Report by team of correspondents, ‘How C.I.A. Put “Instant Air Force” into Congo’, in The New Tork Times, 26 04 1966, pp. 1 and 30.

^{page 383 note 3} See the U.S. Senate's final report on ‘CIA's Assassination Plots’, in The Washington Post, 21 November 1975; also Tully, Andrew, CIA: the inside story (New York, 1962), pp. 178–82.Google Scholar

^{page 383 note 4} Kanza, op. cit. p. 306.

^{page 383 note 5} Ibid. p. 304.

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^{page 384 note 3} Ibid. p. 137.

^{page 384 note 4} Lemarchand, loc. cit. p. 410.

^{page 384 note 5} Ibid. p. 413.

^{page 384 note 6} See Heinz, G. and Donnay, H., Lumumba: the last fifty days (New York, 1969),Google Scholar for a complete and insightful analysis of Lumumba's last days.

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^{page 385 note 1} Wallerstein, Immanuel, ‘From Nixon to Nixon’, in Africa Report (New York), XIV, 7, 11 1969, p. 29.Google Scholar

^{page 385 note 2} Mobutu's long-established connection with the C.I.A. was revealed in The Washington Post, 18 February 1977, and in The New Tork Times, 19 February 1977, as well as in Newsweek (New York), 28 02 1977, pp. 18–19.Google Scholar

^{page 385 note 3} Désiré, JosephMobutu, , Le President Mobutu vous parle: 24 novembre 1965 – novembre 1966 (Léopoldville, 1966), pp. 14–15.Google Scholar

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^{page 386 note 1} Ibid. p. 17.

^{page 386 note 2} Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Washington, D.C., 1971), pp. 242–3.Google Scholar

^{page 386 note 3} Ibid. pp. 223–4 and 226–7. Ironically, following the invasion of Shaba Province in 1977, the post was again revived, seemingly to take some pressure off the President's shoulders, although the Prime Minister in Zaïre is still a powerless executive.

^{page 386 note 4} Willame, loc. cit. pp. 14–15.

^{page 387 note 1} Ibid. p. 16.

^{page 387 note 2} These ‘patrimonial rulers’ were later granted Presidential pardons, and have been given important positions in state-owned companies.

^{page 387 note 3} Young, Crawford, ‘Congo–Kinshasa Situation Report’, in Africa Report, XII, 7, 10 1967, pp. 14–15.Google Scholar

^{page 387 note 4} Les Festivités grandioses du sixième anniversaire de l'indépendence de la République démocratigue du Congo au 30 juin 1966 (Kinshasa, 1966), pp. 17–18.Google Scholar

^{page 388 note 1} Since 1971, La Gecomine has been renamed La Générale des carrières et des mines, or La Gecamine.

^{page 388 note 2} For a concise and detailed account of this mutiny, see Kamitatu, op. cit. pp. 187–92; ‘Mobutu Répond aux questions de Mohamed Bahri’, in Jeune Afrique (Paris), 07 1967, pp. 3–5;Google Scholar and Young, loc. cit. pp. 13–14.

^{page 388 note 3} In 1970, Lovanium University, the State University of the Congo, and the Free Congo University were consolidated into one institution, later known as L'Université nationale du Zaïre, or U.N.A.Z.A.

^{page 388 note 4} Klein, Martin, ‘Congo–Kinshasa Simmers’, in Africa Report, XV, 1, 01 1970, p. 10.Google Scholar

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^{page 389 note 1} The name ‘Zaire’ was a corruption or a misnomer by the Portuguese Diego Cao who explored that area in 1482. The Bakongo people called the mouth of the Congo River ‘Nzadi’. Some Congolese ethnographers have wondered why Mobutu chose a Portuguese colonial name instead of an authentic Congolese name.

^{page 389 note 2} For a more detailed and insightful analysis of this major conflict between Mobutu and Cardinal Malula, see Adelman, Kenneth L., ‘The Church–State Conflict in Zaire: 1969–1974’, in African Studies Review (Waltham, Mass.), XVIII, 1, 04 1975, pp. 102–15.Google Scholar

^{page 389 note 3} Diallo, Siradiou, ‘Jeans Afrique Fait Parler Mobutu’, in Jeans Afrique, 591, 605 1972, pp. 19–20.Google Scholar

^{page 390 note 1} Adelman, Kenneth L., ‘The Recourse to Authenticity and Négritude in Zaïre’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, XIII, 1, 03 1975, p. 135.Google Scholar

^{page 390 note 2} Ibid.

^{page 390 note 3} For excellent critical views of Zaïrian authenticité, see Ntalaja, Nzongola, ‘The Authenticity of Neocolonialism: ideology and class struggle in Zaire’, Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Boston, 3–6 November 1976;Google Scholar and Tutashinda, N., ‘Les Mystifications de l'authenticité’, in La Pensée (Paris), 175, 05–06 1974, pp. 68–81.Google Scholar

^{page 390 note 4} The word Abacos is an acronym literally meaning in French ‘A Bas le costume’, or ‘Down with the western-style suit’, in order to downgrade imported European clothes.

^{page 390 note 5} Ottaway, David B., ‘Mobutu Invokes Christ and Mao as Guides for Zaire's Goals’, in The Washington Post, 28 10 1974, pp. 1 and 10.Google Scholar In retrospect, the success of Salongo without co-ordinated planning was spotty at best. As expected, it was subsequently and quietly phased out.

^{page 391 note 1} Réunion du MPR: résumé des décisions prises par le Bureau Politique Réuni du 11 au 14 juillet 1974; conséquenœs de l'institutionalisation du MPR (Zaïre Embassy, Washington, D.C., 1974), p. 1.Google Scholar

^{page 391 note 2} Ibid.

^{page 391 note 3} ‘The Style of Mobutu: how authentic?’, in Africa Report, XX, 2, March–April 1975, p. 3.

^{page 391 note 4} Ottaway, op. cit. p. 10.

^{page 392 note 1} ‘The Style of Mobutu’, pp. 2–3.

^{page 392 note 2} Randall, Jonathan C., ‘Mobutu Warms to Church Role’, in The Washington Post, 4 07 1976.Google Scholar

^{page 393 note 1} ‘Mobutu's Blackmail of the Zaïrian Bishops Regarding the Return of the Schools to the Churches’, in Miso Gaa (the journal of Zaïrian émigrés in Belgium), 26, 10–11 1976, pp. 4 and 7.Google Scholar

^{page 394 note 1} Bender, Gerald J., ‘Zaïre: is there any rationale for U.S. intervention?’, in Los Angeles Times, 27 03 1977.Google Scholar

^{page 394 note 2} Ibid.

^{page 394 note 3} Randall, Jonathan C., ‘Zaïrians Seek Defense Against Own Ill-Starred Army’, in The Washington Post, 22 06 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 394 note 4} State Department Human Rights Report, March 1977.

^{page 395 note 1} Kamitatu, op. cit. pp. 383–4.

^{page 395 note 2} Legum, Colin, ‘Army Plot Is Symptom of Instability in Zaïre’, in The Washington Post, 23 06 1975.Google Scholar

^{page 395 note 3} ‘No. 2 Man is Purged in Zaïre’, in ibid. 14 August 1977.

^{page 395 note 4} Kaufman, Michael T., ‘Zaïre: a Mobutu fiefdom where fortunes shift quickly’, in The New York Times, 3 06 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 396 note 1} ‘L'Armée zaïroise exercerait une répression meurtrière en région Bandundu’, in Le Soir (Brussels), 27 02 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 396 note 2} Ottaway, David B., ‘Zaire Tragedy: cycle of revolt and repression’, in The Washington Post, 4 06 1978;Google Scholar see also Kaufman, ‘Zaire: a Mobutu fiefdom where fortunes shift quickly’.

^{page 396 note 3} La Libre Belgique and La Soir, 18 March 1978.

^{page 396 note 4} Ottaway, ‘Zaïre Tragedy’, loc. cit.

^{page 396 note 5} Darton, John, ‘Despite Unrest, Mobutu Keeps Tight Lid on Zaïre’, in The New York Times, 24 04 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 396 note 6} Randall, Jonathan C., ‘Uncertainties in Zaïre’, in The Washington Post, II 06 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 397 note 1} John Borrell, ‘Refugees Fleeing Zaïre Charge Killings by Army’, in ibid. 26 June 1978.

^{page 397 note 2} Kamitatu, Cléophas, Zaïre, le pouvoir à la portée du peuple (Paris, 1977), p. 63;Google Scholar see also Randall, Jonathan C., ‘U.S. Props up a Beleaguered Mobutu’, in The Washington Post, 1 07 1976.Google Scholar

^{page 397 note 3} Kaufman, ‘Zaïre: a Mobutu fiefdom’.

^{page 398 note 1} Kaufman, Michael T., ‘In Kinshasa, Where Palm-Greasing is a Way of Life, War Seems Far Away’, in The New York Times, 19 04 1977.Google Scholar

^{page 398 note 2} Chomé, Jules, Mobutu, Guide Suprême (Brussels, 1975), pp. 34–40.Google Scholar

^{page 398 note 3} Lamb, David, ‘The Cult of Mobutu’, in The Washington Post, 14 04 1977.Google Scholar

^{page 398 note 4} See Kaufman, ‘Zaïre: a Mobutu fiefdom’.

^{page 398 note 5} See the article in Time (New York), 28 10 1974,Google Scholar quoted in Sogge, David, ‘Background Report: Zaïre in crisis’, National Action Research on Military Industrial Complex, 04 1977, pp. 2–3.Google Scholar

^{page 398 note 6} See Stephen Weissman's article in the Nation, 30 November 1974, quoted in NARMIC's report on ‘Zaïre in crisis’, p. 3.

^{page 399 note 1} Kaufman, ‘Zaïre: a Mobutu fiefdom’.

^{page 399 note 2} Kaufman, ‘In Kinshasa where Palm-Greasing is a Way of Life’.

^{page 399 note 3} Kaufman, ‘Zaïre: a Mobutu fiefdom’.

^{page 399 note 4} Newsweek, 12 June 1978, p. 8.

^{page 400 note 1} Randall, ‘Uncertainties in Zaïre’.

^{page 400 note 2} Silber, Irwin, ‘Zaïre: an IMF subsidiary’, in The Guardian (London), 28 06 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 400 note 3} Matatu, Godwin, ‘Mobutu's Sweeping Broom, in Africa (London), 73, 09 1977, p. 46.Google Scholar

^{page 400 note 4} Ottaway, David B., ‘Zaïre: Mobutu's Tactics Frustrate Efforts to Impose Order in Army, Economy’, in The Washington Post, 6 06 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 400 note 5} Kamitatu, , Zaïre, le pouvoir à la portée du people, p. 73.Google Scholar

^{page 400 note 6} Randall, Jonathan C., ‘Neocolonialism Shadow Seen as West Rallies behind Mobutu’, in The Washington Post, 7 06 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 401 note 1} Borders, ‘Congo, After Bloody Decade, Starts to Fulfill Hopes’.

^{page 401 note 2} Peemans, J. Ph., ‘The Social and Economic Development of Zaïre Since Independence: an historical outline’, in African Affairs, 74, 295, 04 1975, pp. 164–6.CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 402 note 1} Rymenam, Jean, ‘Comment le régime Mobutu a sapé ses propres fondements’, in Le Monde diplomatique (Paris), 05 1977, p. 8.Google Scholar

^{page 402 note 2} Randall, Jonathan C., ‘Mobutu: success through failure’, in The Washington Post, 18 06 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 402 note 3} Peemans, loc. cit. p. 166.

^{page 403 note 1} Lamb, ‘The Cult of Mobutu’; see also Rymenam, loc. cit. p. 8.

^{page 403 note 2} Szulc, Tod, ‘After Angola, Zaïre? Our Man Mobutu’, in The New Republic (New York), 21 02 1976.Google Scholar

^{page 403 note 3} Evans, Rowland and Novak, Robert, ‘A Somber Message from Africa’, in The Washington Post, 12 02 1976.Google Scholar

^{page 403 note 4} Darton, John, ‘Zaïre Has Lured the Foreigners Back’, in The New York Times, 7 05 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 404 note 1} Ibid.

^{page 404 note 2} Lamb, ‘The Cult of Mobutu’.

^{page 404 note 3} Kaufman, ‘Zaïre: a Mobutu fiefdom’.

^{page 404 note 4} Pintak, Lawrence E., ‘Can Mobutu Maintain Grip on Power?’, in The Washington Star, 6 06 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 404 note 5} Ndovi, Victor, ‘The Ghosts that Haunt Mobutu’, in New African (London), 131, 07 1978, p. 13.Google Scholar

^{page 404 note 6} ‘Zaïre: rebel who's who’, in To the Point International (Johannesburg), 9 05 1977, p. 28.Google Scholar

^{page 405 note 1} Lefort, René, ‘La Grande impuissance des oppositions’, in Le Monk diplomatique, 05 1977, pp. 9–10.Google Scholar See also ‘Zaïre: who's who’, p. 28.

^{page 405 note 2} ‘Zaïre: ex-Ambassador co-ordinating exile opposition’, in To the Point International, 21 July 1978, p. 29.

^{page 405 note 3} Randall, ‘Neocolonialism Shadow Seen as West Rallies Behind Mobutu’.

^{page 406 note 1} Ottaway, ‘Zaïre: Mobutu tactics frustrate efforts to impose order in army, economy’.

^{page 406 note 2} Pringle, James, ‘Zaïre: sign of life’, in Newsweek, 19 06 1978, p. 50.Google Scholar

^{page 406 note 3} Oberdorfer, Don, ‘U.S. Restores Aid to Zaïre, War is Over’, in The Washington Post, 16 08 1978.Google Scholar

^{page 407 note 1} Martha Honey, ‘Nyerere Assails West over Zaïre, Defends Soviets’, in ibid. 9 June 1978.

^{page 407 note 2} Bustin, Edouard, ‘Zaïre's Problem; a corrupt régime’, in The Christian Science Monitor (Boston), 26 05 1978.Google Scholar

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