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Structures, Processes, and Communication in the Transformation of the Carter Administration’s Foreign Policy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2016

Luis da Vinha
Luis da Vinha*
Affiliation:
Valley City State University
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Journal of Policy History , Volume 28 , Issue 4 , October 2016 , pp. 624 - 653
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Copyright © Donald Critchlow and Cambridge University Press 2016 

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References

NOTES

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32. Ford and Ford, “The Role of Conversations in Producing Intentional Change in Organizations,” 542.

33. Newmann, “The Structures of National Security Decision Making”; Newmann, “Causes of Change in National Security Processes.”

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40. Carter, Keeping Faith, 59.

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53. Best, The National Security Council.

54. Newmann, “The Structures of National Security Decision Making.”

55. Newmann, “Causes of Change in National Security Processes.”

56. Link, “The Presidential Kaleidoscope”; Newmann, “The Structures of National Security Decision Making.”

57. Newmann, “The Structures of National Security Decision Making,” 277.

58. Link, “The Presidential Kaleidoscope,” 247–48.

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61. Newmann, “The Structures of National Security Decision Making”; Rothkopf, Running the World.

62. Carter, Keeping Faith, 55.

63. Brzezinski, Power and Principle; Cyrus Vance, Hard Choices: Critical Years in Americas Foreign Policy (New York, 1983).

64. Brzezinski, Power and Principle.

65. Vance, Hard Choices, 39.

66. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 64.

67. Carter, Keeping Faith.

68. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 65.

69. Vance, Hard Choices, 38.

70. Carter, Keeping Faith.

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76. Brzezinski, Power and Principle; Garthoff, Raymond, Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington, D.C., 1985)Google Scholar; Vance, Hard Choices.

77. Brzezinski, Power and Principle.

78. Ibid.; Vance, Hard Choices.

79. Telegram from Secretary Vance to President Carter (1 October 1977), http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_global_competition/TAB%203/doc06%20-%2019771001%20-%20Middle%20East%20Discussion%20with%20the%20Soviets.pdf (accessed 20 January 2013).

80. Presidential Review Memorandum 10, Comprehensive Net Assessment and Military Force Posture Review (18 February 1977), http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/prmemorandums/pres_memorandums.phtml.

81. PRM-10, Final Report “Military Strategy and Force Posture Review” (undated), http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/prmemorandums/pres_memorandums.phtml (accessed 20 January 2013).

82. Ibid., 24.

83. Presidential Directive 18, U.S. National Strategy (24 August 1977), http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/pddirectives/pres_directive.phtml (accessed 20 January 2013).

84. See, for example, Memorandum from Brzezinski to President Carter (11 March 1977), http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/carter/files/zb_daily_3-11-77.pdf (accessed 30 August 2012).

85. Presidential Review Memorandum 21, The Horn of Africa (17 March 1977), http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/prmemorandums/pres_memorandums.phtml (accessed 20 January 2013).

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90. Special Coordinating Committee Meeting: Summary of Conclusions (27 January 1978), 1, http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_global_competition/Tab%202/19780127%20-%20Summary%20of%20Conclusions,%20SCC%20Meeting%20on%20Horn%20of%20Africa.pdf (accessed 20 January 2013).

91. Brzezinski, Power and Principle.

92. Vance, Hard Choices.

93. Presidential Directive 32, Horn of Africa (24 February 1978), http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/pddirectives/pres_directive.phtml (accessed 20 January 2013).

94. Ibid.

95. The President’s News Conference (2 March 1978), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=30437 (accessed 15 September 2013).

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98. Ibid., 9.

99. Department of State, “Interview: National Security Adviser Brzezinski on ‘Meet the Press,’” Department of State Bulletin 78, no. 2016 (1978): 26–28 (26).

100. The President’s News Conference (14 June 1978), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=30946 (accessed 15 September 2013).

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103. Brzezinski employed a traditional issue-selling strategy that involved the continuous presentation of issues over an extended period of time. See Dutton, Jane, Ashford, Susan, O’Neill, Regina, and Lawrence, Katherine, “Moves That Matter: Issue Selling and Organizational Change,” Academy of Management Journal 44, no. 4 (2001): 716–36 (722).Google Scholar

104. For a general account of the Carter administration’s decision-making process during the Iranian Revolution, see Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 355–94; Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America’s Tragic Encounter with Iran (London, 1985); Vance, Hard Choices, 326–43.

105. NSC Weekly Report no. 81 (2 December 1978). Jimmy Carter Library, Zbigniew Brzezinski Collection, Weekly Reports, box 41, “Weekly Reports 71–81,” folder: 3.

106. NSC Weekly Report no. 83 (28 December 1978). Jimmy Carter Library, Zbigniew Brzezinski Collection, Weekly Reports, box 41, “Weekly Reports 82–90,” folder.

107. Memorandum from Brzezinski to President Carter, Consultative Security Framework for the Middle East (3 March 1979). Jimmy Carter Library, National Security Affairs: Staff Material/Horn, box 3, “4/79” folder: 2.

108. Comprehensive Net Assessment 1978: Overview, attachment to NSC Weekly Report no. 92 (30 March 1979). Jimmy Carter Library, Zbigniew Brzezinski Collection box 42, “Weekly Reports 91–101” folder.

109. Odom, William, “The Cold War Origins of the U.S. Central Command,” Journal of Cold War Studies 8, no. 2 (2006): 52–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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111. Turner, Burn Before Reading, 180–81.

112. Carter, Keeping Faith, 51, 53.

113. For a summary of the interagency debate, see NSC Weekly Report no. 105 (3 August 1979). Jimmy Carter Library, Zbigniew Brzezinski Collection, Weekly Reports, box 42; NSC Weekly Report no. 101 (22 June 1979). Jimmy Carter Library. Zbigniew Brzezinski Collection, Weekly Reports, box 42, “Weekly Reports 91–101” folder.

114. Memorandum from Brzezinski to President Carter, “Reflections on Soviet Intervention in Afghanistan” (26 December 1979): 1, http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_intervention_in_afghanistan_and_the_fall_of_detente/doc73.pdf (accessed 11 February 2013).

115. Ibid., 1.

116. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 426–27.

117. Braithwaite, Rodric, Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan, 1979–1989 (Oxford, 2011), 114Google Scholar; Hartman, Andrew, “‘The Red Template’: U.S. Policy in Soviet-occupied Afghanistan,” Third World Quarterly 23, no. 3 (2002): 467–89 (470, 473)Google Scholar.

118. Special Coordinating Committee Meeting: Summary of Conclusions (17 December 1979), http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_intervention_in_afghanistan_and_the_fall_of_detente/doc60.pdf (accessed 11 February 2013).

119. Vance, Hard Choices, 387.

120. Special Coordinating Committee Meeting: Summary of Conclusions (17 December 1979).

121. Special Coordinating Committee Meeting: Summary of Conclusions (26 December 1979), http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB396/docs/1979-12-26%20Summary%20of%20Conclusions%2020SCC%20Meeting%20on%20Soviet%20Moves.pdf (accessed 20 January 2013); Memorandum from Brzezinski to Vance, “Presidential Decisions on Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India” (2 January 1980), http://www2.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB396/docs/1980-01-02%20Presidential%20Decisions%20on%20Pakistan%20-%20Afghanistan.pdf (accessed 13 February 2013); Memorandum from Brzezinski to Mondale, Vance, and Brown, “Results of the NSC Meeting” (2 January 1980), http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_intervention_in_afghanistan_and_the_fall_of_detente/doc76.pdf (accessed 11 February 2013).

122. Vance, Hard Choices, 391.

123. Memorandum from Brzezinski to Vance “Presidential Decisions on Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India” (02 January 1980), http://www2.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB396/docs/1980-01-02%20Presidential%20Decisions%20on%20Pakistan%20-%20Afghanistan.pdf (accessed 13 February 2013).

124. Jimmy Carter, “Address to the Nation by the President [January 4, 1980],” in American Foreign Policy Basic Documents, 1977–1981, Office of the Historian of the Department of State (Washington, D.C., 1983), 812–14 (813).

125. Special Coordinating Committee Meeting: Summary of Conclusions (14 January 1980), http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_intervention_in_afghanistan_and_the_fall_of_detente/doc78.pdfhttp://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_global_competition/Tab 2/19780127 - Summary of Conclusions, SCC Meeting on Horn of Africa.pdf (accessed 11 February 2013).

126. Jimmy Carter, “Address by the President Before a Joint Session of Congress [January 23, 1980],” in American Foreign Policy Basic Documents, 1977–1981, Office of the Historian of the Department of State (Washington, D.C., 1983), 53–57.

127. Brown, Seyom, The Faces of Power: The United States Foreign Policy from Truman to Clinton (New York, 1994)Google Scholar; Garthoff, Détente and Confrontation.

128. Freedman, Lawrence, A Choice of Enemies: America Confronts the Middle East (London, 2009), 94.Google Scholar

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130. Ibid., 69.

131. Luis da Vinha, “In Search of a Morally Pragmatic Foreign Policy: The Carter Administration’s Human Rights Policy,” in Democracia, Direitos Humanos e Justiça Global, ed. Marta Costa (Braga, 2013), 81–98 (92).

132. Gates, Robert, Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War (New York, 2014), 413.Google Scholar

133. Robert Gates suggests that, beginning in March 1979, administration officials considered supporting the Afghan insurgency in order to try to draw the Soviets into a military quagmire—see Gates, Robert, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York, 1996), 143–47.Google Scholar